Download Chapter 8 Learning - Mercer Island School District

Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 8
Learning
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Learning

Learning – a
relatively
permanent change
in an organism’s
behavior due to
experience.
Types of Learning
Classical
conditioning:
learning to link two
stimuli in a way that
helps us anticipate
an event to which
we have a reaction
Operant
conditioning:
changing behavior
choices in response
to consequences
Cognitive
learning: acquiring
new behaviors and
information through
observation and
information, rather
than by direct
experience
Association
 We learn by association
 Our minds naturally connect events that
occur in sequence
 Aristotle--2000 years ago
 John Locke and David Hume--200 years ago
 Associative Learning
 learning that two events occur together
 two stimuli (as in classical conditioning)
 a response and its consequences (as in operant
conditioning)
Associative Learning:
Classical Conditioning
How it works: after repeated
exposure to two stimuli
occurring in sequence, we
associate those stimuli with
each other.
Result: our natural response to
one stimulus now can be
triggered by the new, predictive
stimulus.
After Repetition
Stimulus: See lightning
Response: Cover ears to avoid sound
Stimulus 1: See
lightning
Stimulus 2: Hear
thunder
Here, our response to
thunder becomes
associated with
lightning.
Associative Learning:
Operant Conditioning
 Child associates his “response” (behavior) with consequences.
 Child learns to repeat behaviors (saying “please”) which were
followed by desirable results (cookie).
 Child learns to avoid behaviors (yelling “gimme!”) which were
followed by undesirable results (scolding or loss of dessert).
Operant Conditioning
 We learn to
associate a
response and its
consequence
Cognitive Learning
Cognitive learning refers to acquiring new behaviors and
information mentally, rather than by direct experience.
Cognitive learning occurs:
1.by observing events and the behavior of others.
2.by using language to acquire information about events
experienced by others.
Behaviorism
 The term behaviorism was used by John B.
Watson (1878-1958), a proponent of classical
conditioning, as well as by B.F. Skinner (19041990), a leader in research about operant
conditioning.
 Both scientists believed the mental life was
much less important than behavior as a
foundation for psychological science.
 Both foresaw applications in controlling human
behavior:
Skinner conceived of
utopian communities.
Watson went into
advertising.
Classical
Conditioning
 Ivan Pavlov
 1849-1936
 Russian
physician/
neurophysiologist
 Nobel Prize in
1904
 studied digestive
secretions
The Office conditioning…https://vimeo.com/35754924
Pavlov’s Classic
Experiment
Before Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
UCR
(salivation)
During Conditioning
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
No
salivation
After Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
UCR
(salivation)
CS
(tone)
CR (salivation)
Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery
While studying salivation in
dogs, Ivan Pavlov found
that salivation from eating
food was eventually
triggered by what should
have been neutral stimuli
such as:
 just seeing the food.
 seeing the dish.
 seeing the person who
brought the food.
 just hearing that
person’s footsteps.
Before
Conditioning
Neutral stimulus:
a stimulus which does not trigger a response
Neutral
stimulus
(NS)
No response
Before Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus and response:
a stimulus which triggers a response naturally,
before/without any conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (US):
yummy dog food
Unconditioned
response (UR):
dog salivates
During Conditioning
The bell/tone (N.S.) is repeatedly presented
with the food (U.S.).
Neutral
stimulus
(NS)
Unconditioned
stimulus (US)
Unconditioned
response (UR):
dog salivates
After Conditioning
The dog begins to salivate upon hearing the tone
(neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus).
Conditioned
(formerly
neutral)
stimulus
Did you follow the changes?
The UR and the CR are the
same response, triggered
by different events.
The difference is
whether conditioning
was necessary for the
response to happen.
The NS and the CS are the
same stimulus.
The difference is
whether the stimulus
triggers the conditioned
response.
Conditioned
response:
dog salivates
Classical
Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning
 organism comes to associate two stimuli
 a neutral stimulus that signals an
unconditioned stimulus begins to
produce a response that anticipates and
prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
Classical
Conditioning
 Acquisition
 the initial stage in classical conditioning
 the phase associating a neutral stimulus with
an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral
stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned
response
 in operant conditioning, the strengthening of
a reinforced response
Classical
Conditioning
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 stimulus that unconditionally--automatically
and naturally--triggers a response
 Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 unlearned, naturally occurring response to
the unconditioned stimulus
 salivation when food is in the mouth
Classical
Conditioning
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 originally irrelevant stimulus that, after
association with an unconditioned stimulus,
comes to trigger a conditioned response
 Conditioned Response (CR)
 learned response to a previously neutral
conditioned stimulus
Classical
Conditioning
UCS
(passionate
kiss)
CS
(onion
breath)
CS
(onion
breath)
UCR
(sexual
arousal)
UCS
(passionate
Kiss)
CR
(sexual
arousal)
UCR
(sexual
arousal)
Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR in the following:
Your romantic partner always uses the same
shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo makes
you feel happy.
The door to your house squeaks loudly when you
open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail
when the door squeaks.
The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before
stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear
“This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear.
You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that
causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign
for that restaurant, you feel nauseated.
Classical
Conditioning
 Extinction
 diminishing of a CR
 in classical conditioning, when a
UCS does not follow a CS
 in operant conditioning, when a
response is no longer reinforced
Classical
Conditioning
Strength
of CR
Acquisition
(CS+UCS)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Spontaneous
recovery of
CR
Extinction
(CS alone)
Pause
Spontaneous Recovery [Return
of the CR]
After a CR (salivation) has been conditioned and then
extinguished:
following a rest period, presenting the tone alone might lead
to a spontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned
response despite a lack of further conditioning).
if the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US,
the CR becomes extinct again.
Classical
Conditioning
 Spontaneous Recovery
 reappearance, after a rest
period, of an extinguished CR
 Generalization
 tendency for stimuli similar to CS
to elicit similar responses
Classical
Conditioning
 Discrimination
 in classical conditioning, the learned
ability to distinguish between a CS
and other stimuli that do not signal a
UCS
Generalization and Discrimination
Please notice the narrow, psychological definition .
Ivan Pavlov conditioned
dogs to drool when
rubbed; they then also
drooled when
scratched.
Generalization refers to the
tendency to have conditioned
responses triggered by related
stimuli.
MORE stuff makes you
drool.
Ivan Pavlov conditioned
dogs to drool at bells of a
certain pitch; slightly
different pitches did not
trigger drooling.
Discrimination refers to the
learned ability to only
respond to a specific stimuli,
preventing generalization.
LESS stuff makes you drool.
Generalization
Drops of saliva
in 30 seconds
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Pelvis
Hind
paw
Thigh
Shoulder
Trunk
Front
paw
Foreleg
Part of body stimulated
Nausea Conditioning in
Cancer Patients
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
CS
(waiting
room)
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
CS
(waiting
room)
CR
(nausea)
Classical Conditioning
Apply the following to The Office:
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Conditioned Response (CR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Behaviorism
 John B. Watson
 viewed psychology as
objective science
 generally agreed-upon
consensus today
 recommended study of
behavior without reference
to unobservable mental
processes
 not universally accepted by all
schools of thought today
Behaviorism and John B. Watson
Psychology’s “theoretical goal is the
prediction and control of behavior.”
Behaviorism: the view that psychology (1)
should be an objective science (2) studies
behavior without reference to mental
processes. Most research psychology
agree with (1) but not (2).
Little Albert
John B. Watson and Classical
Conditioning: Playing with Fear
 In 1920, 9-month-old Little Albert was not afraid of
rats.
 John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner then clanged a
steel bar every time a rat was presented to Albert.
 Albert acquired a fear of rats, and generalized this fear
to other soft and furry things.
 Watson prided
himself in his ability
to shape people’s
emotions. He later
went into
advertising.
Operant and Classical Conditioning are
Different Forms of Associative Learning
Classical conditioning:


Operant conditioning:

involves operant behavior,
chosen behaviors which
“operate” on the environment
 these behaviors become
these reactions to
associated with consequences
unconditioned stimuli (US)
which punish (decrease) or
become associated with
reinforce (increase) the
neutral (thenconditioned)
operant behavior
stimuli
There is a contrast in the process of
conditioning.
involves respondent behavior,
reflexive, automatic reactions
such as fear or craving
The experimental (neutral)
stimulus repeatedly precedes
the respondent behavior, and
eventually triggers that behavior.
The experimental (consequence)
stimulus repeatedly follows the
operant behavior, and eventually
punishes or reinforces that
behavior.
Operant Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
 type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or
diminished if followed by punishment
 Law of Effect
 Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed
by favorable consequences become more
likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable
consequences become less likely
Operant Conditioning
 Operant Behavior
 operates (acts) on environment
 produces consequences
 Respondent Behavior
 occurs as an automatic response to
stimulus
 behavior learned through classical
conditioning
Operant Conditioning
 B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
 elaborated
Thorndike’s Law of
Effect
 developed behavioral
technology
 absolutely loved
pigeons
B.F. Skinner: The Operant Chamber
 B. F. Skinner, like Ivan Pavlov, pioneered more
controlled methods of studying conditioning.
 The operant chamber, often called “the Skinner box,”
allowed detailed tracking of rates of behavior change in
response to different rates of reinforcement.
Recording
device
Bar or lever
that an animal
presses,
randomly at
first, later for
reward
Food/water dispenser
to provide the reward
Reinforcement
 Reinforcement
refers to any feedback from
the environment that makes
a behavior more likely to
recur.
 Positive (adding)
reinforcement: adding
something desirable
(e.g., warmth)
 Negative (taking away)
reinforcement: ending
something unpleasant
(e.g., the cold)
This meerkat has just
completed a task out
in the cold
For the meerkat,
this warm light is
desirable.
Operant Conditioning
A cycle of mutual
reinforcement
Children who have a temper tantrum
when they are frustrated may get
positively reinforced for this behavior
when parents occasionally respond
by giving in to a child’s demands.
Result: stronger, more frequent
tantrums
Parents who occasionally give in to
tantrums may get negatively
reinforced when the child responds
by ending the tantrum.
Result: parents giving-in behavior
is strengthened (giving in sooner
and more often)
47
Principles of
Reinforcement
 Primary Reinforcer
 innately reinforcing stimulus
 i.e., satisfies a biological need
 Food, emotional well-being
 Conditioned Reinforcer
 stimulus that gains its reinforcing
power through its association with
primary reinforcer
 secondary reinforcer
 Good grades, money
Schedules of
Reinforcement
 Continuous Reinforcement
 reinforcing the desired response each time it
occurs
 Under such conditions learning occurs rapidly
 In absence of reinforcement, extinction likely
 Partial (Intermitent) Reinforcement
 reinforcing a response only part of the time
 results in slower acquisition
 greater resistance to extinction
How often should we
reinforce?
 Do we need to give a reward every single time? Or
is that even best?
 B.F. Skinner experimented with the effects of giving
reinforcements in different patterns or “schedules”
to determine what worked best to establish and
maintain a target behavior.
 In continuous reinforcement (giving a reward
after the target every single time), the subject
acquires the desired behavior quickly.
 In partial/intermittent reinforcement (giving
rewards part of the time), the target behavior takes
longer to be acquired/established but persists longer
without reward.
Schedules of
Reinforcement
 Fixed Ratio (FR)
 reinforces a response only after a
specified number of responses
 faster you respond the more rewards you
get, results in a very high rate of
responding
 Frequent flyer programs
Schedules of
Reinforcement
 Variable Ratio (VR)
 reinforces a response after an
unpredictable number of responses
 like gambling, fishing
 very hard to extinguish because of
unpredictability
Schedules of
Reinforcement
 Fixed Interval (FI)
 reinforces a response only after a
specified time has elapsed
 response occurs more frequently as
the anticipated time for reward
draws near
 Checking for the mail as afternoon
approaches
 Checking to see if the cookies are done
Schedules of
Reinforcement
 Variable Interval (VI)
 reinforces a response at unpredictable
time intervals
 produces slow steady responding
 pop quizzes
Reinforcement is This?
Ratio or Interval?
Fixed or Variable?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Rat gets food every third time it presses the lever
Getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done
Getting paid for every ten boxes you make
Hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine
Winning sometimes on the lottery you play once a day
Checking cell phone all day; sometimes getting a text
Buy eight pizzas, get the next one free
Fundraiser averages one donation for every eight
houses visited
9. Kid has tantrum, parents sometimes give in
10. Repeatedly checking mail until paycheck arrives
FR
FI
FR
VR
VI/VR
VI
FR
VR
VR
FI
Schedules of
Reinforcement
Number of
responses
1000
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
750
Rapid responding
near time for
reinforcement
500
Variable Interval
250
Steady responding
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (minutes)
60
70
80
Punishment
 Punishment
 aversive event that decreases the
behavior that it follows
 powerful controller of unwanted
behavior
Punishment
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
 Cognitive Map
 mental representation of the layout of
one’s environment
 Example: after exploring a maze, rats act
as if they have learned a cognitive map of
it
 Latent Learning
 learning that occurs, but is not apparent
until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Latent Learning
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
 Intrinsic Motivation
 Desire to perform a behavior for its
own sake and to be effective
 Extrinsic Motivation
 Desire to perform a behavior due to
promised rewards or threats of
punishments
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
 Overjustification Effect
 the effect of promising a reward for
doing what one already likes to do
 the person may now see the reward,
rather than intrinsic interest, as the
motivation for performing the task
Operant vs Classical
Conditioning
Learning by
Observation
Module 23
65
Learning by Observation
Learning by Observation
 Bandura’s Experiments
 Applications of Observational
Learning
66
Learning by Observation
©Herb Terrace
Monkey on the right
imitates monkey on the
left in touching the
pictures in a certain
order to get reward.
© Herb Terrace
Higher animals
especially humans learn
through observing and
imitating others.
67
Mirror Neurons
Reprinted with permission from the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004)
© 2004 AAAS.
Neuroscientist have discovered (mirror)
neurons in the brain of animals and humans that
activate during observational learning.
68
Learning by observation
comes about early in life.
This 14 month old child
imitates the adult on TV
in pulling a toy apart.
Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.
Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.
Imitation Onset
69
Bandura's Bobo doll study
(1961) indicated that
individuals (children)
learn through imitating
others who receive
reward and punishments.
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=YclZBhn40hU
Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University
Bandura's Experiments
70
Applications of Observational
Learning
Bad news from
Bandura’s studies is
that antisocial models
(family, neighborhood
or TV) may have
antisocial effects.
71
Positive Observational Learning
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The good news is that prosocial (positive,
helpful) models can have prosocial effects.
72
Gentile et al., (2004)
showed that elementary
school-going children
who were exposed to
violent television,
videos and video games
expressed increased
aggression.
Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images
Television and Observational
Learning
73
Modeling Violence
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Glassman/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Research has shown that viewing media violence
does lead to increased expression of aggression.
74
Observational
Learning
 Observational Learning
 learning by observing others
 Modeling
 process of observing and imitating a
specific behavior
 Prosocial Behavior
 positive, constructive, helpful behavior
 opposite of antisocial behavior
Observational
Learning
 Mirror Neurons
 frontal lobe neurons that fire when
performing certain actions or when
observing another doing so
 may enable imitation, language
learning, and empathy