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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 8 Learning James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Learning Learning – a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Types of Learning Classical conditioning: learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction Operant conditioning: changing behavior choices in response to consequences Cognitive learning: acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience Association We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence Aristotle--2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume--200 years ago Associative Learning learning that two events occur together two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) Associative Learning: Classical Conditioning How it works: after repeated exposure to two stimuli occurring in sequence, we associate those stimuli with each other. Result: our natural response to one stimulus now can be triggered by the new, predictive stimulus. After Repetition Stimulus: See lightning Response: Cover ears to avoid sound Stimulus 1: See lightning Stimulus 2: Hear thunder Here, our response to thunder becomes associated with lightning. Associative Learning: Operant Conditioning Child associates his “response” (behavior) with consequences. Child learns to repeat behaviors (saying “please”) which were followed by desirable results (cookie). Child learns to avoid behaviors (yelling “gimme!”) which were followed by undesirable results (scolding or loss of dessert). Operant Conditioning We learn to associate a response and its consequence Cognitive Learning Cognitive learning refers to acquiring new behaviors and information mentally, rather than by direct experience. Cognitive learning occurs: 1.by observing events and the behavior of others. 2.by using language to acquire information about events experienced by others. Behaviorism The term behaviorism was used by John B. Watson (1878-1958), a proponent of classical conditioning, as well as by B.F. Skinner (19041990), a leader in research about operant conditioning. Both scientists believed the mental life was much less important than behavior as a foundation for psychological science. Both foresaw applications in controlling human behavior: Skinner conceived of utopian communities. Watson went into advertising. Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian physician/ neurophysiologist Nobel Prize in 1904 studied digestive secretions The Office conditioning…https://vimeo.com/35754924 Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Before Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) UCR (salivation) During Conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation After Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCR (salivation) CS (tone) CR (salivation) Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery While studying salivation in dogs, Ivan Pavlov found that salivation from eating food was eventually triggered by what should have been neutral stimuli such as: just seeing the food. seeing the dish. seeing the person who brought the food. just hearing that person’s footsteps. Before Conditioning Neutral stimulus: a stimulus which does not trigger a response Neutral stimulus (NS) No response Before Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus and response: a stimulus which triggers a response naturally, before/without any conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US): yummy dog food Unconditioned response (UR): dog salivates During Conditioning The bell/tone (N.S.) is repeatedly presented with the food (U.S.). Neutral stimulus (NS) Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR): dog salivates After Conditioning The dog begins to salivate upon hearing the tone (neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus). Conditioned (formerly neutral) stimulus Did you follow the changes? The UR and the CR are the same response, triggered by different events. The difference is whether conditioning was necessary for the response to happen. The NS and the CS are the same stimulus. The difference is whether the stimulus triggers the conditioned response. Conditioned response: dog salivates Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus Classical Conditioning Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus Classical Conditioning UCS (passionate kiss) CS (onion breath) CS (onion breath) UCR (sexual arousal) UCS (passionate Kiss) CR (sexual arousal) UCR (sexual arousal) Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR in the following: Your romantic partner always uses the same shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo makes you feel happy. The door to your house squeaks loudly when you open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when the door squeaks. The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear “This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear. You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseated. Classical Conditioning Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced Classical Conditioning Strength of CR Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS alone) Spontaneous recovery of CR Extinction (CS alone) Pause Spontaneous Recovery [Return of the CR] After a CR (salivation) has been conditioned and then extinguished: following a rest period, presenting the tone alone might lead to a spontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned response despite a lack of further conditioning). if the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US, the CR becomes extinct again. Classical Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR Generalization tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses Classical Conditioning Discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS Generalization and Discrimination Please notice the narrow, psychological definition . Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool when rubbed; they then also drooled when scratched. Generalization refers to the tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli. MORE stuff makes you drool. Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool at bells of a certain pitch; slightly different pitches did not trigger drooling. Discrimination refers to the learned ability to only respond to a specific stimuli, preventing generalization. LESS stuff makes you drool. Generalization Drops of saliva in 30 seconds 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Pelvis Hind paw Thigh Shoulder Trunk Front paw Foreleg Part of body stimulated Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) CR (nausea) Classical Conditioning Apply the following to The Office: Unconditioned Response (UR) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Conditioned Response (CR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Behaviorism John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon consensus today recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all schools of thought today Behaviorism and John B. Watson Psychology’s “theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.” Behaviorism: the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychology agree with (1) but not (2). Little Albert John B. Watson and Classical Conditioning: Playing with Fear In 1920, 9-month-old Little Albert was not afraid of rats. John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner then clanged a steel bar every time a rat was presented to Albert. Albert acquired a fear of rats, and generalized this fear to other soft and furry things. Watson prided himself in his ability to shape people’s emotions. He later went into advertising. Operant and Classical Conditioning are Different Forms of Associative Learning Classical conditioning: Operant conditioning: involves operant behavior, chosen behaviors which “operate” on the environment these behaviors become these reactions to associated with consequences unconditioned stimuli (US) which punish (decrease) or become associated with reinforce (increase) the neutral (thenconditioned) operant behavior stimuli There is a contrast in the process of conditioning. involves respondent behavior, reflexive, automatic reactions such as fear or craving The experimental (neutral) stimulus repeatedly precedes the respondent behavior, and eventually triggers that behavior. The experimental (consequence) stimulus repeatedly follows the operant behavior, and eventually punishes or reinforces that behavior. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Operant Conditioning Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic response to stimulus behavior learned through classical conditioning Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect developed behavioral technology absolutely loved pigeons B.F. Skinner: The Operant Chamber B. F. Skinner, like Ivan Pavlov, pioneered more controlled methods of studying conditioning. The operant chamber, often called “the Skinner box,” allowed detailed tracking of rates of behavior change in response to different rates of reinforcement. Recording device Bar or lever that an animal presses, randomly at first, later for reward Food/water dispenser to provide the reward Reinforcement Reinforcement refers to any feedback from the environment that makes a behavior more likely to recur. Positive (adding) reinforcement: adding something desirable (e.g., warmth) Negative (taking away) reinforcement: ending something unpleasant (e.g., the cold) This meerkat has just completed a task out in the cold For the meerkat, this warm light is desirable. Operant Conditioning A cycle of mutual reinforcement Children who have a temper tantrum when they are frustrated may get positively reinforced for this behavior when parents occasionally respond by giving in to a child’s demands. Result: stronger, more frequent tantrums Parents who occasionally give in to tantrums may get negatively reinforced when the child responds by ending the tantrum. Result: parents giving-in behavior is strengthened (giving in sooner and more often) 47 Principles of Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer innately reinforcing stimulus i.e., satisfies a biological need Food, emotional well-being Conditioned Reinforcer stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer secondary reinforcer Good grades, money Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs Under such conditions learning occurs rapidly In absence of reinforcement, extinction likely Partial (Intermitent) Reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction How often should we reinforce? Do we need to give a reward every single time? Or is that even best? B.F. Skinner experimented with the effects of giving reinforcements in different patterns or “schedules” to determine what worked best to establish and maintain a target behavior. In continuous reinforcement (giving a reward after the target every single time), the subject acquires the desired behavior quickly. In partial/intermittent reinforcement (giving rewards part of the time), the target behavior takes longer to be acquired/established but persists longer without reward. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get, results in a very high rate of responding Frequent flyer programs Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near Checking for the mail as afternoon approaches Checking to see if the cookies are done Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding pop quizzes Reinforcement is This? Ratio or Interval? Fixed or Variable? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Rat gets food every third time it presses the lever Getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done Getting paid for every ten boxes you make Hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine Winning sometimes on the lottery you play once a day Checking cell phone all day; sometimes getting a text Buy eight pizzas, get the next one free Fundraiser averages one donation for every eight houses visited 9. Kid has tantrum, parents sometimes give in 10. Repeatedly checking mail until paycheck arrives FR FI FR VR VI/VR VI FR VR VR FI Schedules of Reinforcement Number of responses 1000 Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval 750 Rapid responding near time for reinforcement 500 Variable Interval 250 Steady responding 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (minutes) 60 70 80 Punishment Punishment aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows powerful controller of unwanted behavior Punishment Cognition and Operant Conditioning Cognitive Map mental representation of the layout of one’s environment Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it Latent Learning learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Latent Learning Cognition and Operant Conditioning Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective Extrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments Cognition and Operant Conditioning Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task Operant vs Classical Conditioning Learning by Observation Module 23 65 Learning by Observation Learning by Observation Bandura’s Experiments Applications of Observational Learning 66 Learning by Observation ©Herb Terrace Monkey on the right imitates monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to get reward. © Herb Terrace Higher animals especially humans learn through observing and imitating others. 67 Mirror Neurons Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004) © 2004 AAAS. Neuroscientist have discovered (mirror) neurons in the brain of animals and humans that activate during observational learning. 68 Learning by observation comes about early in life. This 14 month old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk. Imitation Onset 69 Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive reward and punishments. http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=YclZBhn40hU Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University Bandura's Experiments 70 Applications of Observational Learning Bad news from Bandura’s studies is that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects. 71 Positive Observational Learning Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works The good news is that prosocial (positive, helpful) models can have prosocial effects. 72 Gentile et al., (2004) showed that elementary school-going children who were exposed to violent television, videos and video games expressed increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images Television and Observational Learning 73 Modeling Violence Children modeling after pro wrestlers Glassman/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Research has shown that viewing media violence does lead to increased expression of aggression. 74 Observational Learning Observational Learning learning by observing others Modeling process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Prosocial Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior Observational Learning Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy