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Chapter 1: History and Approaches
Key Terms, Concepts, and People
Psychology
Behavior
Mind
Eclectic approach
Dualism
Empiricism
Materialism
Structuralism
Introspection
Structuralism
Functionalism
Gestalt psychology
Biological psychology
Behaviorism
Classical conditioning
Stimuli
Responses
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement
Behavior modification
Cognitive psychology
Humanistic psychology
Self-actualization
Unconditional positive
regard
Psychodynamic approach
Unconscious mind
Conscious mind
Repressed
Dream analysis
Free association
Sociocultural approach
Evolutionary psychology
Natural selection
Biopsychosocial approach
Clinical psychology
Counseling psychology
Developmental psychology
Educational psychology
Experimental psychology
Human factors psychology
Industrial-organizational psychology
Personality psychology
Psychometric psychology Social psychology
Key People: Mary Whiton Calkins, Charles Darwin, Dorothea Dix,
Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, William James, Ivan Pavlov, Jean Piaget,
Carl Rogers, B.F. Skinner, Margaret Floy Washburn, John B. Watson,
Wilhelm Wundt
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CLEP Psychology
Overview
Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior.
Behavior refers to the way in which a person acts and can be observed. The
mind refers to that part of an individual that consists of their cognitions,
memories, sensations, emotions, motives, and perceptions. The mind is
what enables individuals to think and reason. It consists of conscious and
unconscious mental processes. Psychology attempts to explain and describe
behavior and the cognitive processes behind behavior.
Psychology is a science based on experimentation and systematic
observation, enabling psychologists to form assumptions about behavior, the
mind, and human functioning. These assumptions lead to the development
of theories that attempt to explain aspects of human behavior or mental
processes. As with all sciences, knowledge about general laws and patterns are
obtained through experimentation and observation. The field of psychology
consists of several different theoretical perspectives, and most psychologists
closely adhere to the theoretical approach that most closely fits their
perspective. However, many psychologists see value in different theories, and
an eclectic approach to the study of psychology. These psychologists believe
that no single theory perfectly explains human thoughts and behavior, but
rather attempt to explain behavior and cognitive processes by drawing upon
different theoretical perspectives.
History of Psychology
Early Greek Philosophers
Throughout history, humankind has been interested in the nature of the
mind and the factors affecting behavior. Many ancient Greek philosophers,
such as Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle presented differing perspectives on
human thought and behavior. Aristotle’s beliefs about logic, reasoning, and
careful observation of the world formed the underpinnings of the scientific
method. These philosophers believed the world, and by extension, human
nature, could be divided into two parts: the body and the spirit. This concept
is known as dualism. The debate over which aspect of a person is more
powerful in determining behavior and cognitions is still relevant today as the
field of psychology continues to expand.
Chapter 1: History and Approaches
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The Scientific Revolution
During the scientific revolution, a great philosophical shift occurred.
Whereas religion had asserted that the spirit of a person could not be studied
using scientific means, a new generation of philosophers and scientists
challenged these religious beliefs. Advances in astronomy, biology, and other
areas demonstrated that human behavior could be scientifically studied.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) believed that the physical world behaved
according to patterns and natural laws. However, Descartes did not believe
the human mind and its processes could be observed or predicted, because the
mind does not follow natural laws. He envisioned an interaction between the
mind and body, with the mind controlling the body and the body constantly
supplying sensory information to the mind. Descartes believed that some
parts of the body, such as reflexes, are not under the control of the mind but
are simply reactions to external stimuli.
Descartes’s ideas were expanded upon by John Locke (1632-1704). Locke
believed that even the mind is subject to natural laws. Locke’s perspective that
truth and knowledge can be acquired through experiences and observations is
referred to as empiricism. Locke is perhaps best known for his concept of “tabula
rasa,” a term that refers to the belief that humans are born knowing nothing,
or are essentially “blank slates.” According to this perspective, no knowledge is
innate; everything a person knows must be learned from experience.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) rejected the idea of a soul and spirit. He
believed that matter and energy are the only things that exist, a philosophy
referred to as materialism. Everything experienced in a person’s conscious
awareness is a result of processes of the brain. The field of behaviorism was
greatly impacted by Hobbes’s philosophy.
Theory of Natural Selection
Discoveries in medicine and biology strongly influenced the field of
psychology during the nineteenth century. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
proposed the idea of natural selection. This evolutionary theory asserted that
all living things evolved over a period of millions of years. Natural selection
assumes that variations among humans naturally exist, and the individuals
most likely to survive and reproduce are those that are the strongest and
fittest, or those that have adapted to their environment. Through the process
of natural selection, the characteristics that ensure a species’ survival are the
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ones selected. Evolutionary theory is one way that differences between species
can be understood and explained.
The Science of Psychology Begins
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is considered to be the founder of the
science of psychology in the year 1879. Wundt hoped to use the process
of introspection, in which individuals observe and record their mental states,
including thoughts and feelings, in response to various stimuli, in order to
understand more about basic cognitive processes. From this experiment,
Wundt and his mentee, Edward Titchener (1867-1927), developed the
theory of structuralism, in which the mind can be broken down into its
simplest components and then those components can be combined in order
to make up the sum total of the individual’s experiences. Titchener is credited
for bringing the science of psychology to the United States.
William James (1842-1910), an American psychologist, disagreed with
the idea of structuralism and offered the view that the function and uses
of cognitive processes, or the mind, is more important than the structures
of the mind, an approach known as functionalism. James is also the author
of the first psychology textbook. One of James’s students, Mary Whiton
Calkins (1863-1930), became the first female president of the American
Psychological Association. Calkins is also credited with starting the first
women’s psychology lab. She is noted for her studies of memory, which
led to the development of the paired association technique. She was a highly
influential professor of psychology and philosophy. Another female pioneer in
the field of psychology is Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939). Washburn
was the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. She is noted for her
work in animal behavior development and for motor theory. G. Stanley
Hall (1844-1924), who also studied under William James, is considered
to be the founder of child psychology and educational psychology; he was
also interested in evolutionary psychology. Hall was the first president of the
American Psychological Association.
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) was one of the three founders of Gestalt
psychology. He believed that thinking moves from the whole to the parts, and
focused on the total experiences of an individual. Gestalt psychology takes a
holistic approach to understanding the individual, and this approach rejects
the idea that human thought and behavior can be separated.
Chapter 1: History and Approaches
43
Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) was a social activist and reformer who
advocated for mentally insane, indigent people. After visiting hospitals
and noting the terrible ways the mentally ill were treated and abused, she
successfully lobbied for the establishment and expansion of state hospitals for
the mentally ill.
Theoretical Approaches
The theoretical perspectives above show an evolution of thinking in
science that gradually moves away from using reason and logic alone, to
become more and more scientific in nature.
There are ten main schools of thought in contemporary psychology.
It is absolutely essential that you understand each one, and know what
distinguishes each approach.
School of
Psychology
(starting year)
Evolutionary
1850s
Structuralism
1880s
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Description
Process of natural selection
determines behaviors and
thoughts that promote survival.
The behaviors, traits and thought
processes that are most beneficial to
survival will be passed to the next
generation.
Used introspection to identify
basic elements or “structures”
of psychological experience. To
understand “reading”, for example,
research participants would describe
their experience while reading. First
laboratory dedicated to psychological
research, University of Leipzig,
Germany 1879.
CLEP Psychology
Important
contributors
Charles Darwin
Wilhelm Wundt,
Edward B.
Titchener
School of
Psychology
(starting year)
Description
Related to Darwinism, consciousness
must have evolved because it was
useful for something; it had a
Functionalism
function. To understand the origins
1890s
and purpose of psychological
phenomenon we should ask what it
is used for.
The unconscious mind determines
thoughts and behaviors. The
unconscious mind cannot easily
be accessed, but influences our
Psychodynamic behavior. The conscious mind
1890s
includes cognitive processes that
we can access and for which we are
aware. Early childhood experiences
shape personality and determine
behavior
Not possible to objectively study
the mind, therefore study should
focus on observable behavior.
Classical conditioning was the basis
Behaviorism
for learning by association. Operant
early 1900s
conditioning refers to the effect of
reinforcers (positive or negative) that
strengthen or weaken the likelihood
the behavior happens again.
The study of mental processes,
including perception, thinking,
Cognitive
memory, and judgments. Computer
late 1800s,
analogies guided research and
1960s, 1990s
have now evolved to include
neuroimaging of the brain.
Important
contributors
William James,
Father of
American Psy.
Sigmund Freud
Carl Jung
Alfred Adler
Erik Erickson
Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson,
B. F. Skinner
Hermann
Ebbinghaus,
Albert Ellis
Jean Piaget
Chapter 1: History and Approaches
45
School of
Psychology
(starting year)
Description
Social situations and culture
influence thinking and behavior.
Explains variations in behavior and
Sociocultural
thoughts as influenced by different
1950s
social environments, roles, norms
and values among people of different
cultural groups.
Study of the person, the selfconcept, self-esteem and an
appreciation for the human
condition. Takes a holistic approach
Humanistic
to understanding human behavior
1950s
and improving the growth of
the individual person. Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs and Roger’s
concept of unconditional positive
regard are central concepts.
Attempts to understand how
biology, physiology, and genes
Biological
affect behavior. Cognitive processes,
1990s
emotions, and behaviors are seen as
direct results of biological factors.
Human behavior is the result of
an interaction between biological,
Biopsychosocial psychological, and social factors.
Each factor is equally important in
determining thoughts and behavior.
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Important
contributors
Fritz Heider
Leon Festinger
Stanley Milgram
Abraham
Maslow,
Carl Rogers
No single
researcher
recognized
George Engel
Modern Subfields in Psychology
The AP Psychology exam requires you to be familiar with the subfields of
psychology. Different schools of psychological thought have led to different
subfields and professions in the 21st century. The following is a list of the
subfields and their definitions. Many universities offer masters or doctoral
degrees in these subfields.
Modern Subfields of Psychology
Biological
psychology
Clinical
psychology
Examines the mind-body connection.
Understand how biology, physiology, and genes affect
behavior.
Diagnose, assess, treat, and prevent emotional,
behavioral, and psychological disorders
Counseling
psychology
Help individuals achieve and maintain healthy
functioning.
Includes social, vocational, educational, developmental,
and healthy habits
Developmental
psychology
Studies how and why children/adults change over the
lifespan.
Can include various theoretical approaches.
Cognitive
psychology
Educational
psychology
Examines mental processes involved in social settings,
information processing and decision-making.
Studies learning, motivation, instruction, and
assessment in educational settings.
Examines and improves the interaction between
teaching and learning.
Chapter 1: History and Approaches
47
Experimental
psychology
Studies humans and animals to understand sensation,
perception, memory, learning and motivation.
Human factors
psychology
Design products, equipment and technology for
human interaction.
Often focused on performance and safety.
I/O psychology
How people act in organizations and the workplace.
Goal is to increase performance, motivation, and job
satisfaction.
Personality
psychology
Studies individual differences in emotions, cognitions,
and behavior.
How cultural factors influence personality development
and expression.
Psychometric
psychology
Examines the design, administration and interpretation
of tests.
Measures variables such as aptitude, personality,
abilities, and interests.
Experimental
Social
psychology
Examines the way people relate to others using
experimental methods.
How attitudes are formed, changed, and affect the
behavior of others.
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CLEP Psychology
Practice Questions
1.
Which approach deals with issues of self-concept and free choice?
(Lower order)
(A) sociocultural approach
(B) biological approach
(C) humanistic approach
(D) functionalism
(E) Gestalt psychology
The correct answer is C.
Humanistic psychology focuses on the study of free will, self-concept,
awareness of the human condition and aspects of consciousness. The
sociocultural approach studies how social and cultural factors influence
thoughts and behavior. The biological approach views behavior as being a result
of biological and genetic factors. Functionalism is a theory that states that the
functions of the mind are more important than the actual components of the
mind. Gestalt psychology seeks to understand the individual in view of the
person’s total experiences. Although very similar to humanistic psychology,
gestalt psychology does not focus on self-concept.
2.
Which early theoretical perspective had the greatest influence on
the field of behavioral psychology?
(Higher order)
(A) empiricism
(B) dualism
(C) natural selection
(D) materialism
(E) tabula rasa
Chapter 1: History and Approaches
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