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Chapter 6 Learning Objectives 6.1 How We Learn • Distinguish among three major types of learning theories focusing on behavior. 6.2 Classical Conditioning • Identify the principles of classical conditioning within examples of associative learning. 6.3 Operant Conditioning • Apply the principles of operant conditioning to examples of reinforcement learning. 6.4 A Cognitive Approach: Observational Learning • Explain the evidence that learning can occur without any displayed behavior. How We Learn • Learning: A lasting change in knowledge or behavior based on experience • Acquisition: Gaining new knowledge or behavior to use in the future Behaviorism Training or learning as displayed by an animal or human’s behavior • Classical conditioning: A neutral stimulus is associated with an unlearned stimulus and its automatic response • Operant conditioning: Training emits behaviors to make them more likely to occur again The Cognitive Approach The explanations of behavior based on changes in knowledge within the mind • Observational learning: Acquiring new behaviors from watching a model Pavlovian Conditioning • Unconditioned stimulus: An unlearned signal that leads to an automatic, reflexive response • Unconditioned response: A physiological behavior that is involuntarily elicited by a stimulus • Neutral stimulus: An event or signal that causes no reflexive, automatic response • Conditioned stimulus: A learned signal that predicts another stimulus is about to occur Higher Order Conditioning • Learning to associate a new, neutral stimulus with an already learned conditioned stimulus and conditioned response Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery • Extinction: The absence of a learned behavior • Spontaneous recovery: After a rest, the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response • Resistance to extinction: Associations that are difficult to unlearn Generalization and Discrimination • Generalization: Learning to respond to stimuli similar to the one experienced • Discrimination: Learning to see the difference between two similar stimuli Conditioning and Emotional Responses In humans, events or images may elicit important reflexes or instinctive responses involving emotions. Classical Conditioning and Physiological Response We may be drawn to particular people without realizing they have tapped into classically conditioned responses from our past. We learn so well from classical conditioning that changes may occur in our physiological responses below our conscious awareness. Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning • Learning to predict • Biological and evolutionary predispositions Applying Principles of Classical Conditioning • Flooding: A therapy to treat phobias based on intense exposure to the feared stimulus • Systematic desensitization: Treatment for phobia that practices relaxation to progressively more feared stimuli Thorndike’s Law of Effect • Behaviors that lead to positive outcomes are likely to be repeated Skinner’s Experiments: Reinforcement • Positive reinforcement: A consequence that creates a pleasant state, making behavior more likely to occur • Negative reinforcement: A consequence that takes away an unpleasant state, making behavior more likely to occur • Primary reinforcer: A reward that provides basic needs • Secondary (conditioned) reinforce: A reward that can be exchanged for ones meeting basic needs Operant Conditioning • Acquisition and Shaping • Generalization and Discrimination • Extinction Schedules of Reinforcement Types of reinforcement: intermittent reinforcement continuous reinforcement Punishment • The goal of punishment is to extinguish a behavior rather than reinforce it. Contemporary Views of Operant Conditioning • Learned helplessness • Intrinsic motivation • Biological influences Applying Principles of Operant Conditioning • Behavior modification: An operant conditioning program designed to achieve a goal • Token economies: Situations in which easy-to-use secondary reinforcers are traded in for a meaningful reward • Behavioral contract: The learner signs a written specification of an operant conditioning program Tolman’s Latent Learning • learning takes place without any change in displayed behavior. Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Learning Theory • In a study by Albert Bandura, children modeled adults behavior with an inflatable doll Bandura’s Basic Processes 1. 2. 3. 4. Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Biological Basis: Mirrors in the Brain • Mirror neurons: Neurons in the frontal lobe that respond to motor behavior in oneself and in others Applying Principles of Observational Learning • Observational learning greatly speeds the amount of information and behavior we can acquire by benefitting from the behavior of others.