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CHAPTER 2: PERCEPTION, LEARNING, VALUES, AND ETHICS
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of general principles
of human behavior that are the most relevant for understanding job behavior. In
addition, motivation is considered separately in Chapter 6. Chapters 2 and 3
highlight topics typically covered in an introductory psychology course.
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES
I.
PERCEPTION: HOW PEOPLE INTERPRET THE WORLD
Most of us interpret what is going one in the world outside of us as
we
perceive it--not as it really is. Perception deals with the various ways in which
people interpret things in the external world and how they act on the basis of
these perceptions.
A. Why Perceptual Problems Exist
Both characteristics of the stimulus and the mental processes of
people can lead to distorted perceptions.
1.
Characteristics of the Stimulus. Perceptual problems are
the most likely to be encountered when the stimulus or cue to be perceived has
an emotional meaning (such as money).
2.
Mental Processes of People. The devices that people use to
deal with sensory information play a major role in creating perceptual problems.
a. Selective Attention. The major contributor to perceptual
distortions is the tendency for us to attend to the stimuli most relevant to our
needs. Selective attention is giving exclusive attention to something at the
expense of other aspects of the environment.
b.
Denial. If the sensory information is painful to us, such as
hurting our self-esteem, we tend to go one step beyond selective attention.
Denial is the process of excluding from awareness an important aspect of reality.
c.
Stereotyping. A common method of simplifying perception is
to evaluate an individual or thing based on our perception of the group or class to
which the person or object belongs. Stereotypes ignore individual differences.
d.
Halo Effect. This is the tendency to color everything that we
know about a person because of on recognizable favorable or unfavorable trait.
e.
Projection. Another shortcut in the perceptual process is to
project our own bad faults onto others instead of making an objective appraisal of
the situation.
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f.
Perceptual Congruence. Perceptual errors do not always
occur. Sometimes we have a high degree of perceptual congruence (the
degree to which people perceive things the same way). At times, however,
people can agree on a distorted perception.
B. Attribution Theory: How We Perceive the Causes of Behavior
Perception also involves attempts to explain the causes of
behavior. Attribution theory is the process by which people ascribe causes to
the behavior they perceive. Most people are more likely to attribute a person's
actions or result to personal characteristics than to outside forces. A general
tendency is to attribute achievements to good inner qualities, yet attribute failure
to adverse factors within the environment.
People attribute causes after gathering information about three
dimensions of behavior. Consensus concerns whether other people behave
similarly. Distinctiveness concerns whether the behavior in question occurred in
other situations. Consistency concerns the regularity of behavior. We attribute
behavior to personal factors when we perceive low consensus, low
distinctiveness, and high consistency. We attribute behavior to external causes
when we perceive high consensus, high distinctiveness, and low consistency.
II.
HOW PEOPLE LEARN
Much learning takes place in work settings. Learning is a lasting
change in behavior based on practice or experience. Yet you can learn
something and store it in your mind without changing your behavior. Several
types of learning are described in this chapter.
A. Classical Conditioning: Learning Simple Habits and Reflexes
Classical conditioning helps explain simple types of learning. The
unconditioned stimulus is the natural stimulus that brings forth the unconditioned
response. The conditioned stimulus is the previously neutral stimulus that now
acts like an unconditioned stimulus, and brings forth a conditioned response.
Without an occasional reward, the conditioned response extinguishes. How well
the response generalizes and discriminates is also important.
B. Operant Conditioning: Learning through the Consequences of
Behavior
Operant conditioning, the cornerstone of behaviorism, takes
place as a consequence of behavior.
1.
Learning versus Motivation. People cannot be motivated to
do something they do know how to do, yet they can be motivated to learn.
2.
Reinforcement Strategies. Reinforcement refers to how behaviors
are selected and retained. Four different reinforcement strategies are described
here. Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward for making a desired
response. Negative reinforcement (or avoidance learning) is being rewarded by
being relieved of discomfort. Punishment is the introduction of an unpleasant
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stimulus as a consequence of having done something wrong. The threat of
punishment works in about the same way. Extinction is the weakening or
decreasing the frequency of undesirable behavior by removing the reward for
such behavior. It is the absence of reinforcement.
3.
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers. A primary reinforcer is
one that is rewarding by itself, such as food or water. A secondary reinforcer is
one whose value must be learned through association with other reinforcers.
4.
Schedules of Reinforcement. Under a continuous schedule,
behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. Under an intermittent schedule, the
learner receives a reward after some instances of engaged in the desired
behavior--but not after each instance.
5.
Shaping of Behavior. Instrumental learning can also be used
to help people learn a skill a step at a time. Shaping is the process of learning
through approximations until the total skill is learned. As the learner improves in
the ability to perform the task, more skill is required to receive the reward.
C. Modeling and Informal Learning: Learning Complicated Skills
Complicated skills require more than stimulus-response learning.
Two important cognitive processes that help in learning complicated skills are
modeling and informal learning. Modeling occurs when you learn a skill by
observing another person perform the skills. Modeling is a form of social learning
because it is learned in the presence of others.
Informal learning is planned or unplanned learning that occurs in a
setting without a formal classroom, lesson plan, instructor, or examination. The
central premise of such learning is that employees acquire important information
outside of a formal learning situation. Informal learning is a variation of implicit
learning, or learning that takes place unconsciously and without an intention to
learn.
D. E-Learning: A Method of Delivering Content for Learning
In e-learning (or distance learning) the learner studies
independently outside of a classroom setting, and interacts with a computer in
addition to studying course material. E-learning is still based on principles of
learning. Relevant here is that e-learning is dependent upon cognitive process of
the learner, especially self-motivation and self-discipline.
III.
HOW VALUES AND BELIEFS INFLUENCE JOB BEHAVIOR
Values and beliefs are other factors influencing job behavior. A
value refers to the importance a person attaches to something. Values are also
tied in with enduring beliefs that one's mode of conduct is better than an opposite
mode of conduct. Understanding values is a popular topic, as exemplified by the
belief that Generation X and Generation Y people have values that contrast Baby
Boomers. (See Table 3-1.) For example, Generation X and Generation prefer
teamwork over hierarchy; and Baby Boomers are more career oriented.
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A. How Values are Learned
Values are learned in the normal maturation process, including the
use of role models. The communication of attitudes also helps form values.
Unstated, but implied, attitudes may also shape values. Many key values are
also learned through religion and thus become the basis for society's morals.
B.
Clarifying Your Values
Value-clarification exercises ask you to compare the relative
importance you attach to different objects and activities. Self-assessment
Exercise 2-1 is a typical method of value clarification.
C.
The Stability of Values
Personal values are a more important aspect of behavior to the
extent that they remain stable for long periods of time. If our values change
weekly, monthly, or yearly they are not likely to guide our activities. A person's
life stage and circumstances influence which values are dominant at the time. A
study of intellectually gifted people measured stability of values between ages 13
and 33. A specific finding was that Theoretical, Economic, Aesthetic, and
Religious values are more likely to be dominant during adulthood if they were
dominant during adolescence. Political and Social values were found to be less
stable.
D.
The Mesh between Individual and Job Values
When the values of employees mesh with those required of the job,
performance tends to be higher. When the demands made by the organization or
a manager conflict with the basic values of the individual, the person suffers from
person-role conflict. A clash in values between the person and the company
can also occur when the company believes that the individual's values falls below
their standards.
IV.
ETHICS AND JOB BEHAVIOR
Values are closely tied in with ethics, the study of moral obligations
or separating right from wrong. Ethics convert values into action. A person's
values influence which kinds of behavior he or she believes are ethical.
A. The Extent of Ethical Problems
Ethical problems exist in the workplace, even if the majority of
managers and other workers are ethical. A study of 2,390 workers found that 76
percent of workers say they have witnessed unethical or illegal behavior by
coworkers in the past year. It was also found that 61 percent of workers
suspected that higher ups would be disciplined less severely for ethical violations
than would other workers.
C.
Causes of Ethical Problems
Ethical problems are created by the (1) characteristics of people,
(2) the characteristics of the environment, (3) the combined influence of people
and the environment, and (4) the nature of the relationship between people.
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1.
Characteristics of People. The bad apple explanation of
unethical behavior suggests that people behave unethically primarily because of
negative personal characteristics.
2.
Characteristics of the Environment. The bad barrel
explanation of unethical behavior suggests that people behave unethically
primarily because of negative environmental influences. The study mentioned
above found that the "pressure cooker atmosphere" drives people toward
unethical behavior.
3.
Interaction of Individuals and the Environment. The
combined influence of the individual and the environment can cause unethical
behavior. The person behaves unethically depending on circumstances that
could trigger certain unethical tendencies. The environment might encourage
unethical behavior.
4.
The Strength of Relationships Among People. People who
have close ties to each other are more likely to behave ethically toward each
other on the job. In contrast, if a weak relationship exists between two people,
either party is more likely to engage in an unethical relationship.
D.
A Guide to Ethical Decision Making
A practical way of improving ethical decision making is to run
contemplated decisions through an ethics test when any doubt exists. For
example, when faced with an ethical dilemma, ask yourself the following six
questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Is it right?
Is it fair?
Who gets hurt?
Would you be comfortable if the details of your decision were
reported on
the front page of your local newspaper, television, or your company's
e-mail system?
5.
Would you tell your child (or young family member or
relative) to do it?
6.
How does it smell?
The above test is useful for decisions that are neither obviously
ethical or unethical.
COMMENTS ON DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES
1.
Give an example of a situation in which it is true that "perception is more
important than reality."
A false report was filed about a food-poisoning death associated with eating
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a meal at a particular restaurant. Although the report was false by
objective
standards many present and prospective customers perceived the restaurant
to have low standards of food preparation. The customer base deteriorated so
rapidly that the restaurant was forced to go out of business. To change the
perception, the restaurant re-opened under a new name in another location.
The restaurant was no longer perceived to be unsafe.
2.
Give an example of a situation in which it is not true that "perception is
more
important than reality."
An adolescent boy decides to go ice-skating. He perceives the ice to be thick
enough for safe skating. However, the physical reality is that the ice is too thin
for skating. The boy sinks through the ice, proving that in this instance reality
is more important than perception. (Fortunately he is saved from drowning by
a friend who accurately perceived his problem.)
3.
or
Provide an example of knowledge or skill that you have learned implicitly,
without a conscious intention to learn.
Both minor and major information might be learned implicitly. On the minor
side, a person might learn that the Jeep Liberty has the fifth wheel attached to
the back door through having seen several of these vehicles by chance. On
the major side, a worker might have seen somebody administer
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to a drowning victim. Although the
person did not intend to learn this live-saving maneuver he or she is able to
use CPR to another person who was involved in an automobile accident.
4.
What steps can a company take to encourage informal learning among
employees?
A key step to encourage informal learning is to establish spaces where
employees would interact with each other. Lounges are effective,
and so are
common areas where employees walk on the way to their work
areas.
Company-sponsored luncheon or dinner banquets can also
facilitate the
interaction necessary for informal learning.
5.
How do the following statements by students illustrate a key finding of
attribution theory? "I earned an A in my information systems
course." "The
instructor gave me a D in my applied psychology course."
According to attribution theory, we attribute favorable outcomes to our inner
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qualities. ("I earned an A…"). In contrast, we attribute unfavorable
outcomes
to external forces. ("My instructor gave me….")
6.
Give an example from you own life in which a value of yours led to the
formation of a goal.
An example of a value leading to a goal could take this form: A worker
strongly values continuous learning and self-development. She
therefore
establishes a goal of acquiring three new job-related skills for the upcoming
year.
7.
Why might it be true that people with strong work values live longer than
people with weaker work values?
Strong work values appear to prolong life in two important ways. People with
strong work values are passionate about life, thereby living longer
because
they have an important purpose in live. An important purpose, in
turn, helps
prolong life. Strong work values prolong life also because thinking that work is
central to life helps reduce stressors such as feeling overworked or believing
that working is meaningless.
8.
According to several studies, business firms that practice high ethics are
generally more profitable than those with low ethics. What explanation can
you offer for this finding?
One possible reason that more ethical firms are more profitable is that they
are better managed in general, thus leading to higher profitability. Another
possibility is that more ethical firms attract higher-caliber employees who tend
to be more productive. Furthermore, more ethical firms may attract and retain
customers more readily.
9. A dominant trend in industry since the late 1980s has been to lay off workers
during business downturns in order to decrease costs and improve profits
(known as downsizing). What is your opinion of the ethics of downsizing?
As with many issues in business, downsizing falls into the gray area.
Managers who believe they have an ethical obligation to generate a fair return
for stockholders might think that downsizing is ethical because it prevents
losses and improves profits. In contrast, people who believe that business
firms are morally obliged to look out for the welfare of workers might think that
downsizing is unethical.
10. Ask an experienced supervisor or manager how he or she trains workers.
Relate his or her answer to learning theory.
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The modal answer is likely to be that the supervisor or manager uses
modeling, or asks coworkers to be models for new workers. Supervisors and
managers may not be aware of how much operant conditioning and
informal learning takes place.
COMMENTS ON EXERCISES AND CASES
Clarifying Your Values
Students enjoy this exercise. An intriguing outcome is that some
students are surprised by the ranks they assign to some of the statements. It
would be illuminating to calculate which items received the highest and lowest
ranks.
The Stunning Plaque
This case illustrates the controversial nature of business ethics.
Many people would not even question the ethics of the small company that sells
recognition plaques, whereas other people question the integrity of the company.
1.
“State
What ethical issues do you perceive in this firm calling itself
License Documentation”?
A problem with the title, “State License Documentation” is that the
recipient of the envelop is likely to think he or she is receiving an important
document from the motor vehicle bureau. As such, the title is deceptive.
2. What might be a more accurate name to give the firm selling the plaques?
A term like “Recognition Plaques Inc.” would be more accurate and less
deceptive.
3. What perceptions are most people likely to have when they receive an
envelop in the mail addressed “State License Documentation”?
As mentioned above, the term “State License Documentation” implies an
official document from the state in regard to automobile driving or in some
cases, a license to practice a profession.
4. What is the true nature of the business of SLD? (What business are they
really in?)
State License Documentation is in the business of satisfying the
recognition needs of people who have been cited in the press, or have
written articles.
The Socially Conscious Restaurant
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This case touches on many facets of human behavior. We retain
the case, with an updating, from earlier editions because of its continuing
popularity. This case is also suited for the next chapter because it concentrates
upon individual differences among people.
1.
What will be your biggest challenge in this assignment?
A major challenge is that the manager is faced with the prospects of training
a highly heterogeneous workforce, even with respect to values and ethics.
2.
What cautions should you exercise in using general learning
principles in
training your employees?
The employees will most likely learn at different rates. Some will catch on
quickly to the routine, using almost any learning method. Others will require
a slow conditioning process.
3.
How might the values and ethics of your staff have a negative impact on the
operations of the restaurant, and how can you handle this problem?
Values and ethics might possibly interfere with learning. Some of the former
prisoners may rebel against such a slow method of making up for lost
income during their incarceration. A starting point would be to openly
discuss the values of the employees, and their conflicts.
Pondering an Ethical Dilemma
As with many role plays, students may need guidance in
incorporating ideas from the course into their discussions. A natural tendency is
to conduct a discussion without introducing new knowledge. Someone in this
group should take the initiative to run the ethical dilemma through the 6-question
ethical screen. The ethics of the situation are complicated by the fact that the
jobs in question could make a big difference in the financial well being of the
Pakistani children.
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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Multiple Choice
(a)
The visual image received by the eye
a.
has many possible interpretations.
b.
is quite accurate unless the person has
a visual problem.
c.
becomes more accurate with age.
d.
is typically black and white during the
day.
(c)
1.
2.
(d)
or words)
You are the most likely to encounter perceptual problems when the
stimulus to be perceived has a(n)
a.
negative quality.
c.
emotional quality.
b.
familiar look.
d.
physiological nature.
3.
We are the most likely to pay attention to a stimulus (object
when the stimulus
a.
is subdued.
b.
is colorful.
c.
fits the needs of others.
d.
fits our needs.
(b) 4.
Denial is the most likely to take place when the information being
processed is
a.
confusing.
c.
misperceived.
b.
painful.
d.
complex.
(d) 5. Stereotypes can lead to perceptual errors in evaluating another person
because we
a.
are overly influenced by one positive
trait about the individual.
b.
are overly influenced by one negative
trait about the individual.
c.
tend to believe that person has the
same faults we do.
d.
tend to ignore the uniqueness of the
individual.
(c)
6.
tells a new
A manager with a history of cheating on expense accounts,
member of his group not to cheat on her
expense report after she
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returns from her upcoming business trip. The manager is most likely
using the mental process called
a. denial.
b. stereotyping.
c. projection.
d. the halo effect.
(a) 7.
Because Ashley has a winning smile, you uncritically accept her
technical suggestions. Your perception is being influenced
by
a.
b.
the halo effect.
c.
stereotyping.
denial.
d.
expectancy..
(b) 8.
When most employees perceive the company as having
outstanding
products, the situation is referred to as
a.
perceptual defense.
c.
selective perception.
b.
perceptual congruence.
d.
stereotyping.
(d)
9.
because
You learn the name of the founder of the company simply
you have passed by his statue in the company
lobby a hundred times.
You have most likely learned the name through
a.
behavior shaping.
b.
instrumental learning.
c.
classical conditioning.
d.
implicit learning.
(a)
10.
A key aspect of e-learning is that the learner
a.
studies independently outside of a
classroom.
b.
brings a laptop computer to the
c.
acquires information without really trying
d.
studies in a small group.
classroom.
to learn.
(b) 11. A major contributor to lowering the dropout rate in distance learning is to
a.
have daily lesson assignments.
b.
provide some kind of emotional support
to the learner.
c.
combine videos with the required
reading.
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d.
have people work together in small
groups at least once a week.
(c)
12.
Maria wins a quality award at her company. We are most likely to
attribute Maria's accomplishment to external causes if
a. few other employees have won quality awards.
b.
she won three other quality awards previously.
c.
she has not produced high quality in
other situations.
d.
she bragged about her receiving the
award.
(c)
13.
seeing a
Virtually every automobile driver will stop the car when
flashing red train signal. This type of learning is referred to
as
a.
positive reinforcement.
classical conditioning.
b.
negative reinforcement.
modeling.
c.
d.
(b) 14.
An employee is told, "If you perform well, we will give you a more
comfortable cubicle." The operant conditioning strategy being used here
is classified as
a.
positive reinforcement.
c.
classical conditioning.
b.
negative reinforcement.
d.
office behaviorism.
(c) 15.
effective at
Which of the following reinforcement schedules is the most
d.
(a) 16.
repairing
sustaining behavior?
a.
variable punishment
c.
intermittent
b.
negative reinforcement
continuous
A manager teaches an unskilled worker a procedure such as
a complex machine, one small step at a time. The method
best suited
to such learning is called
a.
shaping.
c.
classical
conditioning.
d.
b.
modeling.
operant conditioning.
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(d) 17.
Which of the following is the best example of informal learning?
a.
A worker attends a company training program, while
wearing cut-off
jeans and a tank top.
b.
The company conducts a training
program in a log cabin in the
woods.
c.
A worker's supervisor coaches him on
how to handle a customer
complaint.
d.
A worker learns about a productivity
suggestion while ordering a
bagel and coffee in the company
cafeteria.
(b) 18.
A psychological value refers basically to
a.
your moral behavior.
b.
c.
d.
the importance you attach to something.
the strength of your desire.
the financial worth you attach to
something.
(a) 19.
Values are frequently learned through
a.
modeling.
c.
behavior shaping.
b.
trial and error.
d.
classical conditioning.
(a) 20. A study of the stability of values between adolescence and twenty years
later suggested that
a.
some values are more likely to be stable
than others.
b.
most values change rapidly from one
year to another.
c.
males have more stable values than
females.
d.
females have more stable values than
males.
(d) 21.
to
c.
(c) 22.
A clash between individual and job values for workers often leads
a.
unethical behavior.
good job performance.
b.
workaholism.
d.
person-role conflict.
Ethics has mostly to do with
a.
the legality of a person's actions.
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b.
c.
d.
(d) 23.
workers
how hard people work.
the moral choices a person makes.
business etiquette and manners..
According to the bad barrel explanation of unethical behavior,
behave unethically primarily because of
a.
negative personal characteristics.
b.
weak relationships with coworkers and
customers.
c.
negative values taught by divorced or
d.
negative environmental influences.
separated parents.
(a) 24.
An explanation offered for unethical behavior dealing with personal
relationships suggests that people are more likely to behave unethically
toward each other when they
a.
have weak ties to each other.
b.
have strong ties to each other.
c.
know that the other person can be easily
fooled.
d. know that the other person
(b) 25.
is unethical.
Which one of the following questions is not contained in the sixquestion ethics test?
a.
Is it right?
b.
How much can I get away with?
c.
d.
How does it smell?
Who gets hurt?
True/False
(F) 1. Assuming that a person’s vision is not damaged or diseased, he or she
will make about the same interpretation of visual images as everybody
else.
(T)
2.
influence on their
Employee perceptions of their job have an important
motivation and satisfaction.
(T)
the
3.
Perceptual distortions are the most likely to take place when
subject being perceived has an emotional
meaning for the people
involved.
(F) 4.
A credit analyst engages in selective attention when she carefully
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evaluates both the strengths and weakness of
a loan application even
though her manager wants to make as many
loans as possible.
(T) 5.
Luke, a manufacturing supervisor in Newark, NJ, reads a company
document saying that manufacturing will most
likely be phased
out of the Newark plant within three years. The
next month he and his
wife buy an expensive house in a Newark
suburb, illustrating that
Luke is engaging in denial.
(F)
failure to
6.
According to attribution theory, people tend to attribute
themselves and success to forces in the
environment.
(T)
result in a
7.
For information or a skill to be considered learned, it should
relatively lasting change in behavior.
(F)
8. Classical conditioning can be described accurately as learning through
the consequences of your behavior.
(T)
9.
people learn
Positive reinforcement is a useful technique for helping
relatively simply tasks.
(F)
10.
A three-day suspension for making a mistake is called negative
reinforcement.
(F) 11. Behavior shaping refers to modeling yourself after an influential person.
(T) 12. To use behavior shaping successfully, one must be prepared to give the
learner rewards as he or she masters each new step in the learning
process.
(T) 13.
Modeling of behavior is considered to be an effective method for
learning a complicated skill.
(F)
14.
(F)
15.
E-learning is primarily learning by conducting experiments on the
computer.
E-learning is a method of delivering instruction that gets around
principles of learning such as the need for
reinforcement.
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(F) 16. A person's values typically change daily, depending on his or her mood.
(T)
the
17.
(T)
18.
appreciate
Value-clarification exercises are designed to help you understand
priorities you give to values.
According to the stereotype, a Baby Boomer is more likely to
hierarchy than would a member of Generation
X or Generation Y.
(T)
19. Person-role conflict takes place when the demands made by the
organization clash with the values of the individual.
(F) 20
Ethics refer to whether a person will persist in obeying the law.
(T) 21.
An important use of ethics is to convert values into action.
(T)
22.
Common ethical problems include lying to customers, offering or
accepting bribes and kickbacks, and the use of
corporate resources for
personal gain.
(T)
23. According to a large survey about ethical problems on the job, only
about ten percent of workers say they have recently witnessed unethical
or illegal behavior by coworkers.
(F) 24.
people
According to the bad apple explanation of unethical behavior,
behave unethically primarily because of
negative environmental
influences.
(T) 25.
When people have close ties to each other, such as having worked
together for a long time, they are more likely to
behave ethically toward
each other.
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