Download 1 Removing the Constraints on Our Choices: A Psychobiological

Removing the Constraints on Our Choices:
A Psychobiological Approach to the Effects of Mindfulness-Based Techniques
Nava Levit Binnun
Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya
Rachel Kaplan Milgram
Yaakov Raz
Tel Aviv University
Mindfulness practice, developed more than 2500 years ago as one of several Buddhist
paths for liberation from suffering, is an enquiry into human existence that has much in common
with existential themes. Jon Kabat-Zinn, a contemporary expert on mindfulness, has defined
mindfulness practice as “the paying attention in a particular way, on purpose, in the present
moment and nonjudgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). Nyanaponika Thera (1972), a Buddhist
monk and scholar, called mindfulness “the clear and single-minded awareness of what actually
happens to us and in us at the successive moments of perception” (p. 5). According to
contemporary Buddhist scholars, mindfulness practice can move an individual toward freedom
by guiding him or her to let go of notions of permanent structures of self and reality (Rahula,
1959; Joko Beck, 2000; Kornfield, 2008).
Mindfulness is part of many Buddhist practices. Currently, there are a variety of Western
mindfulness-based interventions, ranging from stand-alone programs such as the eight-week
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program (MBSR) to others that combine mindfulness with
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existing psychological interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy (for a review, see
Chambers, Gullone, & Allen, 2009). For the purposes of this chapter, we will use the term
“mindfulness” broadly, not in relation to a specific program but in reference to the “construct,
mode of awareness, meditation practice, or psychological practice” (Chambers, Gullone & Allen,
2009).
Recently, psychologists and neuroscientists have taken an interest in mindfulness, and the
number of published mindfulness studies has grown exponentially over the last decade.
Following mindfulness skill development, people report an increase in well-being and a
reduction in stress, anxiety, and depression. In addition, accumulating empirical evidence
suggests that people who possess higher natural levels of mindfulness—even without formal
meditation practices—report feeling more joyful, inspired, grateful, hopeful, content, vital, and
satisfied with life (for a review, see Greeson, 2009). According to first-person reports, the
phenomenological experience of mindfulness is that of an increased sense of freedom and
meaning (Peled, 2007).
Although knowledge regarding the psychological and physiological effects of
mindfulness practices is rapidly increasing, it is still not clear how these empirical findings
translate to the first-person experience of an increased sense of freedom. In this chapter, we
integrate wisdom from two fields that are not often reviewed together—occupational therapy and
Buddhism—to explore how mindfulness may remove the constraints on basic biological systems,
such as the sensory system, which in turn can lead to a greater phenomenological sense of
freedom.
We begin with a review of research in the field of occupational therapy, which
demonstrates how differences in the "tuning" patterns of sensory systems and the ways in which
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they are “coupled” with other systems affect people’s choices, decisions, and values. We then
examine the Buddhist view that senses may be experienced as restrictive limits through which
the world is filtered and formulated into particular mental constructions that guide choices.
Finally, we show how these ideas are grounded in neuroscience findings, and how bridging the
gap between biological and phenomenological findings regarding mindfulness practice can lead
to greater insight.
Insights from Occupational Therapy
People Differ in Their Sensory Processing Patterns
Disciplines such as occupational therapy are providing a wealth of information about how
individuals differ in the way they process sensory information and how these processing methods
guide their choices and behavior (Dunn, 2001; Engel-Yeger, 2008). At a very basic level,
humans are biological machines that create models of reality via input/output systems. Input
from the world around us and from our bodies enters the brain through our exteroceptive sensory
systems (visual, auditory, somatosensory, olfactory, and gustatory) and interoceptive systems
(vestibular, proprioceptive, kinesthetic, and nociceptive).
In certain conditions such as autism, schizophrenia, ADHD, and even normal fatigue,
individuals often exhibit extreme patterns of sensory processing, such as being over-reactive or
under-reactive to incoming stimuli (for review, see Dunn, 2001). Recently, these extreme
patterns of sensory processing have regained scientists' attention, because they may provide
insight into these abnormal conditions. For instance, the rigid and inflexible behavior often
observed in autism can be explained by oversensitivity to stimuli and the consequent
overwhelming of sensory systems (Baranek 1997; Markram et al., 2007).
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A smaller but intriguing body of research focuses on the differences in sensory patterns in
healthy people without disabilities. Distinct patterns of noticing and habituating to sensory
information have been found in healthy preschoolers, for example (McIntosh et al., 1999; EngelYeger, 2008), and in healthy adults (Brown et al., 2001, Aron & Aron, 1997). These differences
have been found using both self-report and physiological measures of autonomic (McIntosh et
al., 1999; Brown et al., 2001) and central nervous system activity (Jagiellowicz et al., 2010).
Recently, Dunn and colleagues found that people without disabilities can be situated on a
continuum of neurological reactivity. People with low neurological thresholds notice sensory
stimuli quite readily and experience more sensory events in daily life than others, whereas people
with high neurological thresholds require more sensory input to generate reactions and responses
(Dunn, 2001).
Individual Differences in Sensory Processing Affect Variables Such as Choices, Temperament,
and Values
Dunn and colleagues have suggested that one’s threshold for incoming sensory stimuli
can influence one’s choices and, consequently, one’s ability to live a satisfying life. They
demonstrated that a relationship can be found between people’s neurological thresholds and their
behavior, temperament, and personality. For instance, people with a high neurological threshold
(i.e., those who experience only salient sensory stimuli) are often “sensation seekers” who enjoy
sensory experiences and find ways to enhance and extend sensory experiences in daily life
(Dunn, 2001). Examples include wearing perfume, smelling flowers, feeling vibrations in stereo
speakers, seeking crowded events, and pursuing active and often extreme physical activities
(Brown et al., 2001; Dunn 2001). Sensation seeking has been found to relate to dimensions of
temperament such as openness, agreeableness, and extraversion (Engel-Yeger, Stern-Ellran, &
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Levit-Binnun, 2011). Sensation seekers score relatively high on Sensory Profile Questionnaire
items such as: “I enjoy being close to people who wear perfume or cologne” and “I like to wear
colorful clothing” (Brown et al., 2001).
People with low neurological thresholds are sensation avoiders. They stay away from
distracting settings and often leave a room if others are moving, talking, or bumping into them.
They create rituals for daily routines, which may be an attempt to generate familiar and
predictable sensory patterns for themselves. When these rituals are interrupted, such people
become unhappy (Brown et al., 2001; Dunn, 2001). Not surprisingly, they people are likely to
score relatively high on negative affect and and the temperament trait neuroticism (Engel-Yeger
et al., 2011). These individuals identify closely with such items on the Sensory Profile
Questionnaire as “I choose to shop in smaller stores because I’m overwhelmed in large stores”
and “I avoid standing in lines or standing close to other people because I don’t like to get too
close to others” (Brown et al., 2001).
Interestingly, these sensory patterns have been found to correlate not only with
temperament but also with personal values (Sverdlik & Levit-Binnun, 2011) and attachment
styles (Engel-Yeger et al., 2011). For example, sensation seeking correlates negatively with
favoring conformity and tradition, and with avoidant attachment styles.
Introducing the Concept of “Tuning”
The human sensory systems are sensitive to a wide range of environmental signals. For
example, the human ear is capable of detecting and discerning anything from a quiet murmur to
the sounds of the loudest heavy metal rock concert. However, the fact that the sensory systems
have such a wide detection range does not necessarily imply that people are all “tuned” similarly
to the world. The information detected by the sensory receptors is modulated almost immediately
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by subcortical areas in charge of arousal and vigilance, by top-down processes, and by processes
in charge of habituation (a decreased response to familiar stimuli) and sensitization (an increased
response to stimuli of importance to the organism). These processes, based on an individual’s
genetic endowment and past experience, result in different neurological thresholds for incoming
information—or, in our terminology, different “tuning patterns” of the sensory systems. Thus,
although the biological systems responsible for sensation may have theoretically similar ranges
of operation in most people, there are important individual differences in the tuning of these
systems.
Individuals Differ Not Only in How Their Sensory Systems are Tuned, But Also in How Their
Sensory Systems Are “Coupled” to Other Systems
At first glance, sensation avoiders and seekers seem to be opposite sensory types,
representing two extremes on a continuum. However, another glance reveals that they actually
share something in common: In both sensory types there seems to be an active regulating process
in charge of balancing the amount of incoming sensory stimuli. For example, sensation seekers
will be attracted to crowded places while sensation avoiders will be repelled by them. Although
the behavioral outcome is very different, in both cases a regulatory attempt is taking place
leading to an increase in sensations for the sensation seekers and a decrease in sensations for the
sensation avoiders. Interestingly, Dunn et al. found that this regulatory process can itself
represented on a continuum. That is, whereas individuals with high neurological thresholds and
active regulatory processes would be termed sensation seekers, individuals with the same high
neurological thresholds but with passive regulation may live their lives with many sensory events
going unnoticed. Because they receive less sensory stimulation, they may not notice changes in
the environment, such as when people enter the room, or changes related to their own bodies,
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such as when they have food or dirt on their face. These individuals identify with items on the
Sensory Profile Questionnaire such as “I don’t notice when people enter the room” (Brown et al.,
2001).
On the other hand, people with low neurological thresholds who are passive with respect
to sensory regulation may have trouble limiting the amount of incoming stimulation. These
people are easily distracted by movements, sounds, or smells. They notice food textures,
temperatures, and spices more rapidly than others and they often let things happen without
moving away from them. These individuals will often score high on Sensory Profile
Questionnaire items such as: “I startle easily to unexpected or loud noises (e.g., vacuum cleaner,
dog barking, telephone ring)” (Brown et al., 2001).
The two axes that Dunn and colleagues have discussed – sensory reactivity (neurological
threshold) and sensory regulation strategy (balancing the amount of incoming information) –
suggest that people differ not only in their “tuning” patterns (high or low neurological threshold)
but also in the way their sensory systems are “coupled” to other basic systems such as those in
charge of regulating vigilance and alertness, and those in charge of emotional valence and action
systems. Here we use the term coupling to refer to the fact that activity in one system will
increase the probability of activity in another system. The more strongly the two systems are
coupled, the greater the causal connection between them. The fact that people can have similar
neurological thresholds but different regulation strategies suggests that people also differ in the
coupling between systems and that coupling strength can constrain subsequent behavior and
choices.
Although the two axes described above do not entirely capture an individual’s sensory
complexity—people have multiple sensory channels, each of which may have a different
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neurological threshold—the four simplistic tuning patterns we have described show how
particular sensory “tuning” and “coupling” patterns can influence choices and behavior.
Insights from Buddhism
In Buddhism, Individual Sensory Processing Is Central to Perception of the World and
Constrains Actions and Choices
Just as the view from occupational therapy emphasizes the role of individual sensory
experiences in constraining behavior, so too does Buddhism place central importance on the role
of sensation and perception in shaping human actions, choices, and understanding of the world.
Buddhist texts organize human experience around the concept of suffering and propose that at
the very basis of our existence there is unease, restlessness, and sometimes even physical and
mental suffering.
Buddhism attempts to explain the origins of this restlessness or unease and claims that at
the root of suffering lie ignorance, clinging, and aversion. We suffer because we are unable to
see that what we experience as a permanent structure of self and reality is actually an everchanging subjective construct. Furthermore, we cling to the desire that our experiences will play
out according to our expectations, and when they don’t, we feel distressed and unhappy.
This ignorance, according to the Buddhist texts, begins with a basic unawareness of how
our perception is constrained by our genetic makeup, past experience, and needs. In turn, our
perceptions themselves constrain our feelings and motivations, which in turn constrain our
actions. Thus the Buddhist view, through a different framework and with slightly different
definitions, emphasizes the strong link between sensory perception and behavior. Examining
canonical Buddhist texts, which are based on the phenomenological experiences following
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meditative self-inquiry, can therefore shed light on the fine details of subjective sensory
processing and how they relate to well-being.
Buddhism Emphasizes the Working of the Sensory Systems
In the paticca-samuppada1, a canonical Buddhist text that presents a model of the
causes of suffering (Figure 1), half of these causes concern the ways in which people sense and
perceive reality. The other half of the causes in the model concern the ways in which we react to
the world and create our self-identity and conception of reality. Importantly, the paticcasamuppada represents all these causes in the form of a circular chain, with each link (each cause)
being conditioned by the preceding link as well as actively conditioning the following link.
As described in the paticca-samuppada, the sensory process can be broken down into
several interrelated stages. We fail to see how the combination of our experiences and needs
govern us (link 1: “lack of self awareness”), and how this in turn influences the way our patterns
and internal representations of the world are imprinted on us (link 2: “internal representation,
patterns”). These representations influence how we are able to discriminate and discern external
and internal stimuli (link 3: “discriminative consciousness”). These discrimination abilities
constrain the way we organize both our experiences and our perceptions of the world by naming,
labeling, and creating forms (link 4: “forms and names”). With our minds already disposed to
discern, shape, and label certain kinds of objects, our senses become attuned to detect the sensory
data associated with such objects, and overlook others (link 5: “attunement of senses”). These
stages form filters that condition our contact with reality (link 6: “contact”). As they occur,
incoming sensory experiences are immediately tinted in shades of “pleasant,” “unpleasant,” or
“natural” (link 7: “sensations”).
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Thus, our past experience will dispose us to a different level of active sensing—such as
listening, seeing, smelling—as we experience different situations. For example, when observing
an object such as a leaf, an artist may notice its various shades, a botanist may be attuned to its
shape, and a gardener may notice that it needs watering. Thus, “an object of perception is
designed by pre-knowledge, information, predispositions, needs and fears from the external
object, which is allegedly the objective source [of] our sensations [of] it” (Aran, 1993).
Notably, the main first half of the model provides a detailed description of filters and
constrictions on the sensory processes that constrain our perception of reality. According to the
model, these sensory processes directly condition our motives, feelings, clinging tendencies,
actions, and development of self-concept, all of which are represented in the second half of the
model (Figure 1). Since the model is circular, these motives, feelings, clinging, actions, etc.,
condition future sensory processes. The model therefore illustrates how human beings are
trapped in a cycle that limits perceptions, actions, and choices.
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Buddhism does not merely outline constraints; it also identifies exit points, or paths to liberation
Importantly, each of the links in the model can serve as a means to break free from the
endless cycle. The paticca-samuppada contains not only the Buddha’s teachings about the
origins of suffering and conflict, but also a practical guide to the various exit points to liberation.
It suggests that we have a choice of either being locked in to the same physical-mental patterns
and constructions, or of unlocking these constraints. Thus, by becoming aware of the factors that
condition or constrain our reality, we can break free of them.
While the “letting go” of craving and clinging (central links in the second half of the
model) is a Buddhist idea that is familiar to Westerners (Mikulas, 2007; Peled, 2007), the letting
go of the constraints on our perceptions and senses (the first half of the model) is a less-familiar
notion. According to the Buddhist view, just as letting go of craving and clinging can lead to
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freedom, so too can awareness of the workings of the senses. Becoming aware of the working of
our senses can increase our freedom in several ways. First, attending to sensory experiences,
without projecting onto them past experiences or restricting them with labels, fears, and plans,
expands them and enables new possibilities that have not been noticed before. Second,
awareness of mental constrictions can loosen their restrictive power and enable us to “let go” of
them, providing us with the possibility of choosing when they are indeed needed as restraints and
when they are constraining and limiting us. Third, we can achieve a sense of freedom
by cultivating the ability to hold an a similar, unbiased attitude toward what is pleasant and what
is unpleasant. This skill, called “equanimity” in Buddhism, enables one to be less manipulated
and controlled by likes and dislikes concerning a certain sensory experience and be able to
choose more clearly the best actions and solutions.
Mindfully “Retuning” the Senses: Another Path to Liberation
How can we overcome ignorance of the links described in the Paticca Samuppada and see
these invisible patterns, constructions, and automatic actions that rule us? Buddhism suggests
mindfulness practice as a form of mental training that can lead to an awakening from ignorance
and lack of awareness. In the Sati-patthana sutta2, which contains one of the earliest instructions
for mindfulness practice, the Buddha teaches his disciples about “mindfulness" and its uses:
How, monks, does a monk live contemplating mental objects in the mental objects of the six
internal and the six3 external sense-bases?
The Buddha proceeds to teach the monks how to cultivate mindful awareness, how to gain
insight into the workings of the visual system, and how to notice the “fetters,” which are the
constraints and bonds on our sensory experience.
Herein, monks, a monk knows the eye and visual forms [and the fetter that arises dependent on
both (the eye and forms)]; he knows how the arising of the non-arisen fetter comes to be; he
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knows how the abandoning of the arisen fetter comes to be; and he knows how the non-arising
in the future of the abandoned fetter comes to be.
The Buddha goes on to emphasize the importance of awareness to all of the senses, not just the
visual sense.
He knows the ear and sounds... the nose and smells... the tongue and flavors... the body and
tactual objects..., and the fetter that arises dependent on both; he knows how the arising of the
non-arisen fetter comes to be; he knows how the abandoning of the arisen fetter comes to be;
and he knows how the non-arising in the future of the abandoned fetter comes to be.
Thus, according to this text, mindfulness practice facilitates the development of a skill by
which one can become aware of fetters (or mental constrictions, described in the Paticca
Samuppada model) and let them go when they arise. Most contemporary mindfulness practices
also emphasize awareness of moment-to-moment sensory experiences. Mindful awareness of a
sensory experience without labeling it (e.g., “itch,” “knee pain”) can develop not only sensitivity
to the subtle details of our experiences, but also an ability to stay with these experiences, suspend
an immediate response, and create a space wherein a novel viewpoint and behavior may arise.
Mindfulness practice can therefore have a profound effect on the filters and constrictions
that cause our perception to be subjective and limited. By broadening our range of sensitivity, we
are in essence “retuning” our senses. Thus, the Buddhist concept of mindfulness, like
occupational therapy in the previous section, strongly relates sensory experiences to choices,
actions, and therefore freedom.
Discussion
Both Occupational Therapy and Buddhism Suggest That the Way We Are “Tuned” to the World
Can Greatly Influence Our Behavior and Decisions
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We have shown how two distinct fields of wisdom, the occupational therapy and
Buddhism, have realized, each in its own context and tradition of inquiry, how much the working
of our senses can influence our behavior and constrain our range of choices. Choices have been
defined by Schwartz, in a previous chapter in this volume, as “what enables each person to
pursue precisely those objects and activities that best satisfy his or her own preferences within
the limits of his or her resources.” The empirical and phenomenological evidence provided by
Buddhism and occupational therapy demonstrate that the way we are “tuned”" to the world can
greatly limit our preferences and resources. In this sense the term “tuning” is advantageous in
that it can translate across fields of wisdom. Its wide accessibility is due to the fact that both
Buddhism and occupational therapy acknowledge and emphasize that at a very basic level
individuals differ in their fundamental patterns of sensory processing.
The Buddhist view goes a step further in offering a detailed description of the subtle
stages of sensory processing that can constrain our perception of reality and subsequently our
actions and behavior. These stages range from the internal representations that provide our model
of the world, to the later tagging of a sensation as “pleasant,” “unpleasant,” or “neutral.” From
the Buddhist point of view, all of these stages, even the contact point of the external stimuli with
the sensory organ's receptors, are already imprinted by an individual’s prior experience, survival
patterns, and attentional priorities. Thus, one’s range of choices is constrained by many
constrictions that begin in the earliest stages of sensory processing.
Buddhism Suggests Mindfulness Practice as a Way of Retuning
If sensory tuning constrains our choices and sense of freedom, how can we remove these
constraints? Buddhism suggests mindfulness practice as a form of perceptual therapy that deconditions normal human perception (Shulman, 2010). Thus, by focusing our attention/
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awareness non-judgmentally on the subtle workings of the senses, we can let go of the effect that
individual tuning patterns have on our choices and consequently increase our sense of freedom.
This chapter's title, “Removing the Constraints on Our Choices,” has a deeper meaning in
the Buddhist view, which does not consider the removal of a problem as the way to alleviate it.
In fact, Buddhists view “problem” as a label that in itself imposes a constraint. Furthermore, a
“problem” does not necessarily require a “solution.” Rather, understanding the constraint and its
nature – accepting it and letting go of the need to either grasp or reject it – is what enables
changing the constraint to a restraint4 (Goldstein, 1987). Thus, in keeping with the tuning
framework described here, we can say that mindfulness practice actually “retunes” rather than
“removes” constraints.
It is also important to note that occupational therapists suggest that understanding
individual sensory tuning patterns can help inform people about the nature of their humanity.
Dunn states that “in knowing [our own] ‘features’ we might be set free to learn, evolve, and live
a satisfying life. I believe that the essential gift of our sensory processing knowledge is in
providing opportunities for insight” (italics added for emphasis; Dunn, 2001, p. 617). Although it
is beyond the scope of this chapter to review the various occupational therapy techniques, it
seems that the “retuning” in occupational therapy occurs via the interaction between the therapist
and the patient, and less through self-guided mental training.
Biological Correlates of the Retuning Process
What are the biological correlates of the retuning processes that occur through
mindfulness training? Neuroscientific evidence regarding the anatomical and functional
connectivity patterns in the brain is accumulating and with it comes a deeper understanding of
how various brain areas can modulate and influence each other through complex
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interconnections. The reactivity in each brain area arises from a delicate balance between local
and global, excitatory and inhibitory neuronal influences (Dani et al., 2005). Highly connected
areas in the brain, considered poly-modal because of their integrative nature, receive a wide
range of sensory, motor, and emotional input that enables them to modulate behavior through
motor and visceral outputs and by direct modulation of the sensory systems (Honey et al., 2007;
Mesulam, 2008; Pessoa, 2008). Examples of such polymodal nodes are the orbitofrontal cortex
(OFC), an area involved in emotion regulation and modification of reactions to aversive stimuli,
and the insula, an area involved in interoception and awareness of bodily sensations
(Kringelbach, 2005; Pessoa, 2008).
Interestingly, contemplative neuroscience, a rapidly growing field concerned with the
effects of mindfulness practice on the brain, has found that these poly-modal areas (Hölzel et al.,
2008; Lazar et al., 2005; Luders et al., 2009) are among a number of brain regions affected by
this form of training. Other areas affected by mindfulness training include the frontal cortex
(involved in integrating emotion and cognition) and sensory cortices (Lazar et al., 2005). In other
words, key players in modulation processes that can affect the very first stages of sensory
processing have been found to respond to mindfulness training. Recently, Kilpatrick et al. (2011)
demonstrated that an eight-week MBSR course induced changes in intrinsic connectivity
networks comprising parts of the sensory cortices and parts of the insula. These findings may
reflect the consistent attentional focus, enhanced sensory processing, and reflective awareness of
sensory experience often found following MBSR training (Kilpatrick, 2011). In sum, both
sensory cortices and areas involved in modulation of sensory processes are affected by
mindfulness practices. Remarkably, these neuroscience findings support the Buddhist view, over
two thousand years old, regarding the relation of mindfulness to sensory processes.
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Discussion of the Term “Coupling” and Biological Correlates of Decoupling
The tuning of the sensory processes, as well as the way they are coupled to other
processes, affects choices and behavior. From occupational therapy, we learned that individuals
can differ in the strength of this coupling, as Dunn and her colleagues demonstrated by showing
that people can have different thresholds for sensory stimuli and can also differ in the amount of
regulation they apply to those stimuli. In Buddhism, this coupling is reflected in the paticcasamuppada model, whereby each link is conditioned by the link before it and conditions the link
after it. In a larger sense, the workings of the sensory systems (the first half of the model)
condition our cravings, actions, and self-definition (the second half of the model), thus coupling
them together.
By paying mindful attention to the various types of conditioning, a “decoupling” or
“loosening of coupling” can occur. For example, following such decoupling, the activation of the
sensory process need not activate processes related to cravings, actions, and self-definition. In
support of this view, a recent study showed that Zen mindfulness practitioners report lower
levels of pain in response to a thermal pain stimulus (Grant et al., 2011). The neuroscientific
findings showed a functional decoupling between sensory brain areas and brain areas that play a
role in cognitive evaluation of sensations. This decoupling was suggested to reflect the reports of
mindfulness practitioners that the practice enables them a more neutral view of sensory painful
stimuli (Grant et al., 2011).
Expanding the Framework Beyond the Sensory System
It is important to note that although this chapter has focused mainly on the sensory
system, similar claims can be made regarding the effects of mindfulness on other basic
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neurological systems. For instance, emotional processes are described in the paticca-samuppada
and are considered a target for mindfulness practice in the Sati-pattana-suta. Indeed, emotionrelated areas such as the amygdala have been found to display a range of reactivity patterns—and
thus different “tuning”—for different individuals (Hariri, 2009). Moreover, mindfulness practice
has been shown to affect emotion-regulation processes (Chambers, Gullone, & Allen, 2009).
Although similar evidence can be brought forth for other brain processes (e.g., action processes),
a complete review is beyond the scope of this chapter.
In sum, we have attempted to understand the biological correlates of the first-person
phenomenological experience of an increased sense of freedom following mindfulness practices.
We used the terms tuning and coupling to integrate Buddhist phenomenological insights,
observations from occupational therapy, and empirical evidence to show that individual tuning
and coupling patterns impose limitations on an individual’s range of choices and that these
concepts are grounded in neurobiology findings. These biological limits can be retuned and
decoupled by mindfulness practices, leading to loosened constraints and increased ranges of
perception, choices, and action. We hope that such integrations can benefit future research aimed
at linking biology with phenomenology.
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Footnotes
1.
Paticca means “because of” or “dependent upon”; Samuppada means “arising” or
“origination.” Paticca Samuppada, therefore, literally means “dependent
arising” or “dependent origination,” a central concept in Buddhist philosophy.
2.
Mindfulness is the most common translation of the Pali word sati. The Sati
Patthana sutta or “The four foundations of mindfulness” is one of the earliest
instructions for mindfulness practice, in which the Buddha teaches his disciples
to be mindful and attentive to the activities of the body [kaya], the sensations or
feelings [vedana], the activities of the mind [citta], and to ideas, thoughts,
conceptions, and things [dhamma].
3.
The sixth “sense-base” here refers to thoughts, which are considered to be one of
the foci of a sense in Buddhism.
4.
An even deeper understanding in Buddhism is that the concept of a separate and
constant self is illusionary. The letting go of the very concept of self is the
deepest practice in Buddhism, and also in mindfulness meditation. If not
overcome, this construct of separateness will cause innumerable problems.
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Figure Legends
Figure 1. Paticca Samuppada cycle – a circular model representing a chain of
conditioned arising of suffering, each cause (each link) being conditioned by the preceding link
as well as actively conditioning the following link. The links in Pali begin with “lack of self
awareness” and continue in clockwise order: avijja, sankhara, vinnana, nama-rupa, salayatana,
phassa, vedana, upadana, bhava, jati, jara-marana, and dukkha.
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