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Learning
General Psychology
Lecture 4
Ilkay Tosun (Msc)
Eastern Mediterranean University
Behavioural & Cognitive Learning
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Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior that is
brought about by experience.
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Behavioural approaches to learning
-Classical conditioning
-Operant conditioning
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Cognitive approaches to learning
-Latent learning
-Observational learning
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s dog experiment
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Classical conditioning: A type of learning in which a
neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response
after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings
about that response.
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Ivan Pavlov
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Accidentally discovered classical conditioning while
working on digestion
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Attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog
allowing precise measure of dog’s salivation.
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Rang a bell, and then put food in front of the dog.
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At first, the dog only salivated when the food was
presented.
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Then, he started to salivate when the bell began to
ring.
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Even when Pavlov stopped presenting the meat, the
dog still salivated after hearing the sound of the bell.
Classical Conditioning
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Learn new response to neutral stimulus (e.g. bell)
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How? NS is paired with a stimulus (food) that naturally
triggers a specific response (Salvation)
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Over time, the NS has the same response with the other
stimulus
Neutral stimulus (Bell before conditioning)
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (food)
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Natural response
Conditioned stimulus (CS) (Bell after conditioning)
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Naturally causes response
Unconditioned response (UCR) (saliva to food)
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Causes no response
Causes response after learning
Conditioned response (CR)
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Learned response (Salivation after bell)
Applying Classical Conditioning To Human
Behavior
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Explains emotional responses (e.g. phobias)
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The Little Albert Experiment (Watson & Rayner, 1920)
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Experimenters sounded a loud noise whenever Little
albert touched a white, furry rat.
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The noise (US) evoked fear (UR)
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After a few pairings of noise + rat, Albert began to
show fear of the rat by itself, immediately crying when
he saw it.
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So what has the rat and the fear become after the
conditioning?
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Five days later, Albert reacted not only to rats, but
stimuli with white and furry appearance (e.g rabbit)
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE
Classical Conditioning Summary
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Learning occurs by pairing a neutral stimulus with an
unconditional stimulus.
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Food (unconditioned stimulus) = Salvation
(Unconditioned Response)
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Bell (Neutral Stimulus) + Meat (Unconditioned
Stimulus) = Salvation (unconditioned response)
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Bell (Conditoned Stimulus)= Salvation (Conditioned
Response)
Operant Conditioning
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Operant conditioning: Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened
or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
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Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning applies to voluntary
responses, which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable
outcome.
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Based on reinforcement: The process by which a stimulus increases the
probability that a preceding behaviour will be repeated.
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Through reinforcers: stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding
behavior will occur again. (e.g. money, food, high marks, toys, relief from
pain)
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Primary reinforcer satisfies biological needs and works naturally, regardless of
a person’s previous experience. (food, warmth, relief from pain)
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Secondary reinforcer stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its relation
to a primary reinforcer. (e.g. we know money is valuable, we have learned that
it allows us to reach to other desirable objects, including primary reinforcers.
Operant Conditioning
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Skinner’s operant conditioning experiment on rats:
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Aim: teaching a hungry rat to press a lever that is in its box.
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Rat was put in a box, named “Skinner Box”
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It wandered around the box, explored the environment.
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At some point, it pressed the lever by chance.
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It received a food pellet when it pressed the lever.
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After a few trials, it learnt the connection between pressing at
the lever and receiving food.
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It presses the lever continually until it satisfies its hunger.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOgowRy2WC0
Positive & Negative Reinforcers
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Positive reinforcer: Adding something wanted
-A father gives his daughter candy for tidying up her toys.
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Negative reinforcer: Removing something unwanted
-Taking a pain-killer will reduce your headache.
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Reinforcer vs. Punishment
-Reinforcer: favorable consequences, increase behaviour
-Punishment: unfavorable consequences, decrease behaviour
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Positive punishment: Adding something unwanted
-Cleaning the house for partying without the permission of parents.
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Negative punishment: Removing something wanted
-No computer games for a week!
Example Questions
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High marks
Positive Reinforcement
No homework for 1 week
Negative Reinforcement
Using a cream to cool down burnt skin
Negative Reinforcement
No chocolate for a week
Negative Punishment
Promotion for good performance at work
Positive Reinforcement
No meeting with friends for a week
Negative Punishment
Fine for high speed in traffic
Positive Punishment
Why reinforcement beats punishment?
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Punishment usually allows the quickest way to modify behavior that might
be dangerous to an individual if allowed to continue. (e.g. child running
towards a busy street)
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Punishment supresses behaviour and provides an opportunity to reinforce
a person for subsequently behaving in a more desirable way (e.g. room
punishment for a child)
HOWEVER
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Punishment is frequently ineffective (e.g. an employee who is
reprimanded by the boss may quit, a teenager who loses the use of the
family car may borrow a friends car)
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The impression that aggression is permissible and perhaps even desirable
(e.g. hitting a child)
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No information about what an alternative more appropriate behavior might
be.
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Reduce self-esteem
Questions
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The last three times little Theresa visited Dr. Lopez for checkups, he
administered a painful preventive immunization shot that left her in tears.
Today, when her mother takes her for another checkup, Theresa begins to
cry as soon as she comes face to face with Dr. Lopez, even before he has
had a chance to say hello.
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The painful shot:
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Her tears:
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stimulus
Response
Dr. Lopez:
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Stimulus
Questions
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A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will
occur again:
a) positive reinforcement
b) punishment
c) conditioned stimulus
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You discovered that when you push your alarm’s snooze button it stops
buzzing, and you decided to continue pushing your snooze button. What
type of a reinforcement is involved in this situation?
a)positive reinforcement
b)negative reinforcement
c)positive punishment
d)negative punishment
Cognitive Approaches To Learning
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Not all learning is due to operant and classical
conditionings.
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E.g. learning to drive a car: some kinds of learning must
involve higher order processes in which people’s thoughts
and memories and the way they process information
account for their responses.
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Cognitive learning theory: an approach to the study of
learning that focuses on the thought processes that
underlie learning
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It is not enough to explain people’s responses by an
assumed link between a stimulus and a response
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People, even lower animals, develop an expectation
that they will receive a reinforcer after making a
response.
Latent learning & Observational learning
Latent Learning
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Learning in which a new behaviour is acquired but is not
demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying
it.
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In an experiment:
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Group 1: rats were allowed to wander around a maze once a day
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No rewards for whole 17 days.
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Made many errors and spent long time reaching the end of the
maze
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Group 2: always given food when reached to the end of the maze
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Learned to run quickly and directly to the food box, few errors.
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Group 3: Unrewarded for the first 10 days.
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From the day 11, rewarded with food for completing the maze.
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Reductions in running time and decline in error rates
People also develop cognitive maps (e.g. knowing the location
of things who are not even interested in)
Observational Learning: Learning through imitation
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Learning by observing behavior of another person, or model.
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Albert Bandura’s Social cognitive approach: portions of an individual's
knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the
context of social interactions, experiences and outside media influences.
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Fearless Peer: positive behaviors (e.g. overcoming fears)
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Bobo Doll Experiment: negative behaviors (e.g. agression)
Bobo Doll Experiment
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66 nursery children divided into three groups
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All three watched a film of an adult kicking and
punching the Bobo Doll
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Group 1: Children saw the model being rewarded
by another adult
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Group 2: Children saw a second adult being telling
off the model for the aggressive behaviour
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Group 3: The model was neither rewarded nor
punished
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Conclusion: Only those who saw the model being
punished did not act agressively towards the Bobo
Doll.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8