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Learning General Psychology Lecture 4 Ilkay Tosun (Msc) Eastern Mediterranean University Behavioural & Cognitive Learning u Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience. u Behavioural approaches to learning -Classical conditioning -Operant conditioning u Cognitive approaches to learning -Latent learning -Observational learning Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s dog experiment u Classical conditioning: A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response. u Ivan Pavlov • Accidentally discovered classical conditioning while working on digestion • Attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog allowing precise measure of dog’s salivation. • Rang a bell, and then put food in front of the dog. • At first, the dog only salivated when the food was presented. • Then, he started to salivate when the bell began to ring. • Even when Pavlov stopped presenting the meat, the dog still salivated after hearing the sound of the bell. Classical Conditioning u u Learn new response to neutral stimulus (e.g. bell) • How? NS is paired with a stimulus (food) that naturally triggers a specific response (Salvation) • Over time, the NS has the same response with the other stimulus Neutral stimulus (Bell before conditioning) u u Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (food) u u Natural response Conditioned stimulus (CS) (Bell after conditioning) u u Naturally causes response Unconditioned response (UCR) (saliva to food) u u Causes no response Causes response after learning Conditioned response (CR) u Learned response (Salivation after bell) Applying Classical Conditioning To Human Behavior u Explains emotional responses (e.g. phobias) u The Little Albert Experiment (Watson & Rayner, 1920) • Experimenters sounded a loud noise whenever Little albert touched a white, furry rat. • The noise (US) evoked fear (UR) • After a few pairings of noise + rat, Albert began to show fear of the rat by itself, immediately crying when he saw it. • So what has the rat and the fear become after the conditioning? • Five days later, Albert reacted not only to rats, but stimuli with white and furry appearance (e.g rabbit) • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE Classical Conditioning Summary u Learning occurs by pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditional stimulus. u Food (unconditioned stimulus) = Salvation (Unconditioned Response) u Bell (Neutral Stimulus) + Meat (Unconditioned Stimulus) = Salvation (unconditioned response) u Bell (Conditoned Stimulus)= Salvation (Conditioned Response) Operant Conditioning u Operant conditioning: Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. u Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome. u Based on reinforcement: The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behaviour will be repeated. u Through reinforcers: stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again. (e.g. money, food, high marks, toys, relief from pain) • Primary reinforcer satisfies biological needs and works naturally, regardless of a person’s previous experience. (food, warmth, relief from pain) • Secondary reinforcer stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its relation to a primary reinforcer. (e.g. we know money is valuable, we have learned that it allows us to reach to other desirable objects, including primary reinforcers. Operant Conditioning u Skinner’s operant conditioning experiment on rats: • Aim: teaching a hungry rat to press a lever that is in its box. • Rat was put in a box, named “Skinner Box” • It wandered around the box, explored the environment. • At some point, it pressed the lever by chance. • It received a food pellet when it pressed the lever. • After a few trials, it learnt the connection between pressing at the lever and receiving food. • It presses the lever continually until it satisfies its hunger. • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOgowRy2WC0 Positive & Negative Reinforcers u Positive reinforcer: Adding something wanted -A father gives his daughter candy for tidying up her toys. u Negative reinforcer: Removing something unwanted -Taking a pain-killer will reduce your headache. u Reinforcer vs. Punishment -Reinforcer: favorable consequences, increase behaviour -Punishment: unfavorable consequences, decrease behaviour u Positive punishment: Adding something unwanted -Cleaning the house for partying without the permission of parents. u Negative punishment: Removing something wanted -No computer games for a week! Example Questions u • u • u • u • u • u • u • High marks Positive Reinforcement No homework for 1 week Negative Reinforcement Using a cream to cool down burnt skin Negative Reinforcement No chocolate for a week Negative Punishment Promotion for good performance at work Positive Reinforcement No meeting with friends for a week Negative Punishment Fine for high speed in traffic Positive Punishment Why reinforcement beats punishment? u Punishment usually allows the quickest way to modify behavior that might be dangerous to an individual if allowed to continue. (e.g. child running towards a busy street) u Punishment supresses behaviour and provides an opportunity to reinforce a person for subsequently behaving in a more desirable way (e.g. room punishment for a child) HOWEVER u Punishment is frequently ineffective (e.g. an employee who is reprimanded by the boss may quit, a teenager who loses the use of the family car may borrow a friends car) u The impression that aggression is permissible and perhaps even desirable (e.g. hitting a child) u No information about what an alternative more appropriate behavior might be. u Reduce self-esteem Questions u The last three times little Theresa visited Dr. Lopez for checkups, he administered a painful preventive immunization shot that left her in tears. Today, when her mother takes her for another checkup, Theresa begins to cry as soon as she comes face to face with Dr. Lopez, even before he has had a chance to say hello. u The painful shot: u Unconditioned u Her tears: u Unconditioned u stimulus Response Dr. Lopez: u Conditioned Stimulus Questions u A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again: a) positive reinforcement b) punishment c) conditioned stimulus u You discovered that when you push your alarm’s snooze button it stops buzzing, and you decided to continue pushing your snooze button. What type of a reinforcement is involved in this situation? a)positive reinforcement b)negative reinforcement c)positive punishment d)negative punishment Cognitive Approaches To Learning u Not all learning is due to operant and classical conditionings. u E.g. learning to drive a car: some kinds of learning must involve higher order processes in which people’s thoughts and memories and the way they process information account for their responses. u Cognitive learning theory: an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning u • It is not enough to explain people’s responses by an assumed link between a stimulus and a response • People, even lower animals, develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response. Latent learning & Observational learning Latent Learning u Learning in which a new behaviour is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it. u In an experiment: u • Group 1: rats were allowed to wander around a maze once a day • No rewards for whole 17 days. • Made many errors and spent long time reaching the end of the maze • Group 2: always given food when reached to the end of the maze • Learned to run quickly and directly to the food box, few errors. • Group 3: Unrewarded for the first 10 days. • From the day 11, rewarded with food for completing the maze. • Reductions in running time and decline in error rates People also develop cognitive maps (e.g. knowing the location of things who are not even interested in) Observational Learning: Learning through imitation u Learning by observing behavior of another person, or model. u Albert Bandura’s Social cognitive approach: portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences and outside media influences. u Fearless Peer: positive behaviors (e.g. overcoming fears) u Bobo Doll Experiment: negative behaviors (e.g. agression) Bobo Doll Experiment u 66 nursery children divided into three groups u All three watched a film of an adult kicking and punching the Bobo Doll u Group 1: Children saw the model being rewarded by another adult u Group 2: Children saw a second adult being telling off the model for the aggressive behaviour u Group 3: The model was neither rewarded nor punished u Conclusion: Only those who saw the model being punished did not act agressively towards the Bobo Doll. u https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8