Download Chapter 5 Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning
Learning
Conditioning Watson Thorndike
Behavior
Reinforcement Skinner Operants
Classical cond. Punishment
Bandura Pavlov
UCS/UCR
Pos/Neg
Extinction
CS/CR
Bobo-doll exp. Token Economy
NS
Schedules of Reinf. Spontaneous Recovery
Operant cond. Interval
Response
Modeling
Ratio
Discrimination
Instinctive drift Tollman
Generalization
Little Albert
Theories of Learning Phobias
Latent learning Biological preparedness
• What is learning?
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to
experience
When a change occurs in an organism’s behavior, learning has occurred
• Conditioning is the process of learning ____________________________
between environmental events and behavioral responses
• associations
• What are 3 types of learning?
• 1.Classical
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• 2.Operanct
• Observational
Classical Conditioning
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, with the most famous of
psychological experiments, discovered the phenomena we call
classical conditioning - learning to link two or more stimuli and
anticipate events.
His work provided a basis for behaviorism - the view that
psychology (1) should be an objective science that
(2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
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Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus, NS) does not.
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
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Classical Conditioning
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Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who first described the basic process of conditioning
that is now called ___________________________________
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a process of associating an ___________ with a neutral stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
The natural stimulus that reflexively produces a response without prior learning is called the
__________________________
unconditioned stimulus
The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus is called the
___________________________
unconditioned response
The ______________ was originally a neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a reflexive
response.
conditioned stimulus
The _________________ is the learned, reflexive response to a previously neutral stimulus.
conditioned response
• Sally did not enjoy going
with her mother to the
grocery store. One day
when Sally and her mother
went to the grocery store,
the baker gave Sally a
cookie. Sally loves cookies,
she gets excited when she
eats a cookie. Every time
Sally sees the baker at the
grocery store, the baker
gives Sally a cookie. Now
whenever Sally sees the
baker, she gets excited…and
Sally has begun to enjoy
going to the grocery store.
• What is the UCS?
• What is the UCR?
• What is the NS?
• What is the CS?
• What is the CR?
Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical
conditioning in which an association between a neutral
stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.
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In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral
stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned
stimulus.
The time in between the two stimuli should be
about half a second.
In higher-order conditioning a previously conditioned
stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a
new (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
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Factors that Affect Conditioning
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The Strength of the pairing of the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus, the stronger
the association.
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The timing of stimuli presentations also affects the strength of the conditioned response.
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Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
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___________________________ occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned
stimulus elicit the conditioned response
Generalization
_______________________ occurs when a particular conditioned response is made to one specific
stimulus but not to the other, similar stimulus
Discrimination
In conditioning, ______________________ is the gradual weakening and apparent disappearance
of the conditioned response.
Extinction
_________________________ is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned
response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery
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In the early 1900s, _________________________, an American psychologist founded a new school,
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or approach, in psychology called ___________________________
John B. Watson, Behaviorism
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Applications of Classical Conditioning
Brown Brothers
Watson believed that human
emotions and behaviors are
mainly a bundle of conditioned
responses. He showed how
specific fears can be
conditioned with the
controversial “Little Albert”
experiment in which an 11month-old boy was conditioned
to fear a rat.
John B. Watson
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Operant & Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both forms of
associative learning, but there are key differences.
 Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and
US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association
between behaviors and the resulting events.
Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as
an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning
involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the
environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.
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Watson emphasized the direct observation of behavior and rejected the methods
of introspection and the study of unconsciousness.
The famous case of Little Albert demonstrated that classical conditioning could be
used to deliberately establish a conditioned emotional response in a human
subject.
A ______________________ is a classically conditioned intense dislike for or an
avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after
eating the food.
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John Garcia demonstrated that taste aversions could be produced in laboratory
rats under controlled conditions. His findings challenged several of the basic
assumptions of classical conditioning.
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______________________ is the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to
form associations between certain stimuli and responses.
Biological preparedness
__________________ deals with the learning of active, voluntary behaviors that
are shaped and maintained by their consequences.
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Edward Thorndike was the first psychologist to systematically investigate animal
behavior and how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences.
Biological Predisposition
Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn
associations that are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift
towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.
Animals can most easily learn and retain behaviors that draw on their
biological predispositions
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• On the basis of his observations, Thorndike formulated
the _________
• The law of effect...responses followed by a “satisfying
state of affairs” are strengthened, and are more likely
to occur again in the same situation, whereas
responses followed by an “unsatisfying or unpleasant
state of affairs” are weakened and are less likely to
occur again.
• B.F. Skinner believed that psychology should restrict
itself to studying only phenomena that could be
objectively measured and verified, and ____________.
• Observed
• An operant was a term used to describe any active
behavior that operates upon the environment to
generate consequences.
Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking,
especially his law of effect. This law states that
rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.
Yale University Library
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• __________________ or Skinnerian conditioning,
explains learning as a process in which behavior is
shaped and maintained by its consequences.
• __________ occurs when a stimulus or an event
follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the
operant being repeated
• ________________ reinforcement strengthens the
response and
• increases the frequency of that behavior by adding
something pleasurable
• ___________ reinforcement strengthens the response
and increases the frequency of that behavior by taking
away something aversive
Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcer: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Positive reinforcement increases a behavior by presenting a
pleasurable stimulus after the response. Negative reinforcement
increases a behavior by stopping or removing a negative stimulus.
A heat lamp positively reinforces a
meerkat’s behavior in the cold.
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Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in
which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired
target behavior through successive approximations.
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
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Primary & Conditioned Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus
like food or drink.
Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that
gets its reinforcing power through association with
the primary reinforcer.
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• A _____________ is the specific stimulus in the presence of which a
particular operant is more likely to be reinforced
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_________ is reinforcing successful approximations of a behavior until the
correct behavior is displayed; acquisition is the beginning process of
learning a behavior
• Shaping
• ______________ reinforcement, a pattern of reinforcement in which
• every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced
• Partial reinforcement is a pattern of reinforcement in which
• the occurrence of a particular response is only intermittently reinforced
• Extinction is the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned
behavior and occurs because of the disappearance of reinforcement
• The _____ is the phenomenon in which behaviors that are conditioned
using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than
behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement
• Schedules of reinforcement are specific preset
arrangements of partial reinforcement that produce
different patterns and rates of responding
• With a ___________schedule, reinforcement occurs after
a fixed number of responses
• With a variable-ratio schedule reinforcement occurs after
____________ number of responses
• With a fixed-interval schedule, a reinforcer is delivered for
the ___________after the preset time interval has elapsed
• With a __________ schedule, reinforcement occurs for the
first response emitted after an average amount of time has
elapsed…but the interval varies from trial to trial
• A primary reinforcer is one that is naturally reinforcing for a given
species
• A conditioned reinforcer or secondary reinforcer, is one that has
acquired reinforcing values by being associated with a primary
reinforcer.
• ________ is a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive
consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being
repeated
• Positive punishment decreases the response and decreases the
frequency of the behavior by adding something _______
• Negative punishment decreases the response and decreases the
frequency of the behavior by ___________ something pleasurable
• Punishment is more effective if it immediately and consistently
follows a response
Punishment
In relation to parenting and physical punishment of
children, these four drawbacks have been found.
1. Punished behavior is
suppressed, not forgotten.
2. Punishment teaches
discrimination.
3. Punishment can teach
fear.
• It doesn’t teach a more
appropriate response
• It may have undesirable
results such as passivity,
fear, aggression, or
hostility
4. Physical punishment may
increase aggressiveness by
modeling aggression as a
way to cope with
problems.
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• Behavioral modification is the
application of learning principles
to help people develop more
effective or adaptive behaviors
• Edward C. Tolman, an American
psychologist, did not believe that
you needed reinforcers to learn
• Even in the absence of a reward,
latent learning or learning that is
not immediately demonstrated in
overt behavior can occur
• ____________________ is the
phenomenon in which exposure
to inescapable and uncontrollable
aversive events produces passive
behavior
• Learned helplessness
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Cognition & Operant
Conditioning
Evidence of cognitive processes during
operant learning comes from rats during
a maze exploration in which they
navigate the maze without an obvious
reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive
maps, or mental representations, of the
layout of the maze (environment).
Such cognitive maps are based on latent
learning, which becomes apparent only
when an incentive is given (Tolman &
Honzik, 1930).
Reinforcement or Punishment?
Positive or Negative?
• 1. Johnny talks back to
mom. Mom takes away
game boy.
• _________________
• 2. Johnny talks back to
mom. Mom slaps him.
• __________________
• 3. Johnny talks back to
mom. When mom sees
Johnny, she cries.
• _________________
• 4. Johnny talks back to
mom. Mom ignores
Johnny. Johnny talks
back even more.
• ________________
• 5. Johnny talks back to
mom. Mom yells at
Johnny. Johnny talks
back even more.
• __________________
Biological Predispositions
Courtesy of John Garcia
Garcia showed that the duration
between the CS and the US may be
long (hours), but yet result in
conditioning. A biologically adaptive
CS (taste) led to conditioning but
other stimuli (sight or sound) did
not.
John Garcia
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• The instinctive drift interferes with the animal’s ability to learn a
new behavior
• Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the
actions of others
• Which theorist is associated with observational learning?
• Albert Bandura
• In observational learning, it is the _________ of a reward or
reinforcement that affects the performance of what has been
learned
• observation
• What major psychological perspective is associated with
observational learning?
• Social learning theory
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• Remember the Bobo Doll experiment…
Observational Learning
Recap…
• Sally did not enjoy going
with her mother to the
grocery store. One day
when Sally and her mother
went to the grocery store, a
new baker was working in
the bakery department and
the baker gave Sally a
cookie. Sally loves cookies.
Every time Sally sees the
baker at the grocery store,
the baker gives Sally a
cookie. Now whenever Sally
sees the baker, she gets
excited…and Sally has
begun to enjoy going to the
grocery store.
• Classical
Conditioning or
Operant
conditioning?
Explain.