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Learning C. Lack, Ph.D. PSY 2003 Chapter 8 Outline Page 1 of 8 Operational Definitions • Learning o A relatively ______________ change in behavior (or behavior potential) due to experience • Behaviorism o Research on learning has been influenced by this approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the _____________ as a determinant of behavior • Conditioning o The association between environmental stimuli and the organisms responses Section One: Classical Conditioning S–R Learning • Classical conditioning o The most basic form of learning; one stimulus comes to serve as a __________ for the occurrence of a second stimulus (the response) • Stimulus o A physical event capable of affecting behavior • Very common type of learning, may play a role in everything from fears to racial prejudice Pavlov & Classical Conditioning • Ivan Petrovich Pavlov o Russian physiologist and Nobel Prize winner o Decided to be a scientist after reading the works of Charles Darwin • Most famous for his work on the digestion of the dog, which included the first work on classical conditioning The Experiment • C. Lack, Ph.D. PSY 2003 Chapter 8 Outline Page 2 of 8 Pavlov was researching the digestive process in dogs, when he came upon an interesting phenomenon • He would ring a bell at the same time as he was serving the dogs food; eventually, the dogs began to drool at just the ________________ • One stimulus became paired with another, one signaling the coming of the other New Reflexes from Old • Unconditioned stimulus (US) o Elicits a response in the absence of learning • Unconditioned response (UR) o The reflexive response to a stimulus in the absence of learning • New Reflexes from Old o A neutral stimulus is then regularly paired with an unconditioned stimulus • Conditioned stimulus (CS) o An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus • Conditioned response (CR) o Response to the CS The Principles • Acquisition is the process by which a CS acquires the ability to elicit a CR o Happens through repeated ________________ of US with CS o Affected by the number of US-CS pairings, the timing of those pairings, the intensity of the US or CS, and familiarity of the stimuli • Extinction o Process by which a CS _____________ the ability to elicit CR because it is no longer followed by the US o Not a perfect process, events such as reconditioning and spontaneous recovery hinder the extinction of CR C. Lack, Ph.D. PSY 2003 Chapter 8 Outline Page 3 of 8 Higher-Order Conditioning • A neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an CS • Can be implicated in learning prejudices o Negative label applied to some group o Label people at UCA “Conwayians” o Then, pair Conwayians with “retards” or “hicks” o Pretty soon, anyone from UCA is a retard or hick • Stimulus generalization – the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke CR o Have one awesome bald, bearded teacher, so you seek out other bald, bearded teachers • Stimulus discrimination – the process by which we learn to respond to certain stimuli but not to others o You learn that not all bald, bearded teachers are awesome Section Two: Classical Conditioning in Real Life Learning to Like • Why are pretty things paired with things people want to sell you? Learning to Fear • You can condition fears just as easily as likes • Counterconditioning o Pairing a CS with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response Section Three: C. Lack, Ph.D. PSY 2003 Chapter 8 Outline Page 4 of 8 Operant Conditioning Operational Definition • Operant conditioning – process where you learn to repeat behaviors that yield positive outcomes or permit them to avoid or escape negative outcomes • In other words, the chance that a behavior will occur depends on the ______________________ that follow • These chances can be increased by reinforcement or decreased by punishment B.F. Skinner • Followed up on Watson and Thorndike’s work on behavior • Next to Freud, probably the most influential psychologist Consequences • A neutral consequence _______________ increases or decreases the probability that the response will recur • Reinforcement ________________ the response or makes it more likely to recur • Punishment _________________ a response or makes it less likely to recur Increasing Behavior • Reinforcement o Applying or removing a stimulus to increase the strength of a specific behavior • Positive reinforcers o Stimuli that strengthen responses that precede them o There are primary (food, water) and secondary reinforcers (money, praise) • Negative reinforcers o Stimuli that strengthen responses that cause avoidance of those stimuli Decreasing Behavior • Punishment C. Lack, Ph.D. PSY 2003 Chapter 8 Outline Page 5 of 8 o Applying or removing a stimulus decreases the strength of a behavior • Positive punishment o Occurs when behaviors are followed by _____________ stimuli called punishers • Negative punishment o Occurs when behaviors are linked to loss of potential reinforcers Increasing behavior examples • Positive reinforcer – you get candy when you answer questions, so you answer more questions • Negative reinforcer – you lose points when you don’t come to class, so you show up more often Negative vs. Positive Reinforcement • Positive punishment – you sleep in class and get yelled at by the mean teacher • Negative punishment – since you didn’t go to class, you missed out on drinking from the fountain of knowledge that is Caleb The Principles • Shaping o Closer and closer ___________________ to desired behavior are required for positive reinforcement to be given • Chaining o A sequence of responses must be followed to gain a reward • Stimulus generalization o Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus are more likely to ____________ a response • Stimulus discrimination o The tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not another C. Lack, Ph.D. PSY 2003 Chapter 8 Outline Page 6 of 8 The Schedules • There are different schedules of reinforcement used in operant conditioning • These schedules are rules determining ____________ and ___________ reinforcements will be delivered • Continuous reinforcement o _____________ occurrence of a behavior is reinforced o Useful for strengthening new behavior • Every time you raise your hand in class, you get some candy Fixed-interval o A specific interval of _________ must elapse before a response will yield reinforcement • Such as a studying schedule Variable-interval o A variable amount of time must elapse before a response will be reinforced • Surprise inspections at workplace Fixed-ratio o Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of _______________ have occurred • Being paid for each license plate you stamp Variable-ratio o Reinforcement occurs only after a variable number of responses have been performed Slot machines and other games of chance Superstitious Learning • The subjective experience of learning is compelling, but the ________________ between actions and outcomes are misindentified • Any sports players out there have lucky hats, underwear, socks? • Any other examples you can think of? C. Lack, Ph.D. PSY 2003 Chapter 8 Outline Page 7 of 8 Biological Constraints • Principles of operant and classical conditioning operate are limited by an animal’s genetic predispositions and physical characteristics o You can’t train a fish to climb a ladder! Section Four: Operant Conditioning in Real Life Conditioning in Life • Behavior modification o The application of operant conditioning techniques to Teach new responses Reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior o Also called applied behavior analysis • Used in hospitals, classrooms, athletics, prisons, factories, offices, and more! When Punishment Works • _____________________ punishing a self-destructive behavior eliminates it • Milder punishments appear to work as well as harsh ones • Consistency is important When Punishment Fails • People often administer punishment inappropriately • The recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage • The effectiveness is often _______________ • Most misbehavior is hard to punish immediately • Punishment conveys little information • An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing Misuse of Rewards • Rewards must be tied to the behavior you want to _________________ o Don’t praise mediocre work! • C. Lack, Ph.D. PSY 2003 Chapter 8 Outline Page 8 of 8 Good rewarders have to understand types of reinforcers External & Internal Reinforcers • External reinforcers o Reinforcers that are not ___________ related to the activity being reinforced • Internal reinforcers o Reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced • External reinforcers may undermine internal reinforcers Section Five: Social-Cognitive Learning Theories Operational Definition • Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through: o Observation and imitation of others o Positive consequences o ___________________ processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs Learning from Others • Observational learning o The acquisition of new behavior, information, or concepts through exposure to others and the consequences they experience • Can occur from parent to child, amongst peers, or from viewing media • Depends on multiple factors S-C Theories and Violence • The following intervene in the relationship between what we see, what we learn, and how we respond: o Perceptions o Interpretations o Personality dispositions (aggressiveness, sociability)