Download Section One: Classical Conditioning

Learning
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 1 of 8
Operational Definitions
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Learning
o A relatively ______________ change in behavior (or behavior potential) due to
experience
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Behaviorism
o Research on learning has been influenced by this approach to psychology that
emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the _____________
as a determinant of behavior
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Conditioning
o The association between environmental stimuli and the organisms responses
Section One:
Classical Conditioning
S–R Learning
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Classical conditioning
o The most basic form of learning; one stimulus comes to serve as a __________
for the occurrence of a second stimulus (the response)
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Stimulus
o A physical event capable of affecting behavior
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Very common type of learning, may play a role in everything from fears to racial
prejudice
Pavlov & Classical Conditioning
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Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
o Russian physiologist and Nobel Prize winner
o Decided to be a scientist after reading the works of Charles Darwin
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Most famous for his work on the digestion of the dog, which included the first work on
classical conditioning
The Experiment
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C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 2 of 8
Pavlov was researching the digestive process in dogs, when he came upon an
interesting phenomenon
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He would ring a bell at the same time as he was serving the dogs food; eventually, the
dogs began to drool at just the ________________
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One stimulus became paired with another, one signaling the coming of the other
New Reflexes from Old
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Unconditioned stimulus (US)
o Elicits a response in the absence of learning
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Unconditioned response (UR)
o The reflexive response to a stimulus in the absence of learning
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New Reflexes from Old
o A neutral stimulus is then regularly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
o An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after
being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
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Conditioned response (CR)
o Response to the CS
The Principles
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Acquisition is the process by which a CS acquires the ability to elicit a CR
o Happens through repeated ________________ of US with CS
o Affected by the number of US-CS pairings, the timing of those pairings, the
intensity of the US or CS, and familiarity of the stimuli
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Extinction
o Process by which a CS _____________ the ability to elicit CR because it is no
longer followed by the US
o Not a perfect process, events such as reconditioning and spontaneous recovery
hinder the extinction of CR
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 3 of 8
Higher-Order Conditioning
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A neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an CS
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Can be implicated in learning prejudices
o Negative label applied to some group
o Label people at UCA “Conwayians”
o Then, pair Conwayians with “retards” or “hicks”
o Pretty soon, anyone from UCA is a retard or hick
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Stimulus generalization – the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke CR
o Have one awesome bald, bearded teacher, so you seek out other bald, bearded
teachers
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Stimulus discrimination – the process by which we learn to respond to certain stimuli
but not to others
o You learn that not all bald, bearded teachers are awesome
Section Two:
Classical Conditioning in Real Life
Learning to Like
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Why are pretty things paired with things people want to sell you?
Learning to Fear
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You can condition fears just as easily as likes
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Counterconditioning
o Pairing a CS with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an
unwanted conditioned response
Section Three:
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 4 of 8
Operant Conditioning
Operational Definition
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Operant conditioning – process where you learn to repeat behaviors that yield positive
outcomes or permit them to avoid or escape negative outcomes
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In other words, the chance that a behavior will occur depends on the
______________________ that follow
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These chances can be increased by reinforcement or decreased by punishment
B.F. Skinner
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Followed up on Watson and Thorndike’s work on behavior
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Next to Freud, probably the most influential psychologist
Consequences
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A neutral consequence _______________ increases or decreases the probability that
the response will recur
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Reinforcement ________________ the response or makes it more likely to recur
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Punishment _________________ a response or makes it less likely to recur
Increasing Behavior
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Reinforcement
o Applying or removing a stimulus to increase the strength of a specific behavior
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Positive reinforcers
o Stimuli that strengthen responses that precede them
o There are primary (food, water) and secondary reinforcers (money, praise)
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Negative reinforcers
o Stimuli that strengthen responses that cause avoidance of those stimuli
Decreasing Behavior
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Punishment
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 5 of 8
o Applying or removing a stimulus decreases the strength of a behavior
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Positive punishment
o Occurs when behaviors are followed by _____________ stimuli called punishers
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Negative punishment
o Occurs when behaviors are linked to loss of potential reinforcers
Increasing behavior examples
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Positive reinforcer – you get candy when you answer questions, so you answer more
questions
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Negative reinforcer – you lose points when you don’t come to class, so you show up
more often
Negative vs. Positive Reinforcement
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Positive punishment – you sleep in class and get yelled at by the mean teacher
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Negative punishment – since you didn’t go to class, you missed out on drinking from
the fountain of knowledge that is Caleb
The Principles
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Shaping
o Closer and closer ___________________ to desired behavior are required for
positive reinforcement to be given
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Chaining
o A sequence of responses must be followed to gain a reward
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Stimulus generalization
o Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus are more likely to ____________
a response
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Stimulus discrimination
o The tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not
another
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 6 of 8
The Schedules
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There are different schedules of reinforcement used in operant conditioning
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These schedules are rules determining ____________ and ___________
reinforcements will be delivered
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Continuous reinforcement
o _____________ occurrence of a behavior is reinforced
o Useful for strengthening new behavior
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Every time you raise your hand in class, you get some candy
Fixed-interval
o A specific interval of _________ must elapse before a response will yield
reinforcement
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Such as a studying schedule
Variable-interval
o A variable amount of time must elapse before a response will be reinforced
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Surprise inspections at workplace
Fixed-ratio
o Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of _______________ have
occurred
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Being paid for each license plate you stamp
Variable-ratio
o Reinforcement occurs only after a variable number of responses have been
performed
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Slot machines and other games of chance
Superstitious Learning
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The subjective experience of learning is compelling, but the ________________
between actions and outcomes are misindentified
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Any sports players out there have lucky hats, underwear, socks?
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Any other examples you can think of?
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 7 of 8
Biological Constraints
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Principles of operant and classical conditioning operate are limited by an animal’s
genetic predispositions and physical characteristics
o You can’t train a fish to climb a ladder!
Section Four:
Operant Conditioning in Real Life
Conditioning in Life
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Behavior modification
o The application of operant conditioning techniques to
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Teach new responses
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Reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior
o Also called applied behavior analysis
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Used in hospitals, classrooms, athletics, prisons, factories, offices, and more!
When Punishment Works
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_____________________ punishing a self-destructive behavior eliminates it
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Milder punishments appear to work as well as harsh ones
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Consistency is important
When Punishment Fails
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People often administer punishment inappropriately
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The recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage
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The effectiveness is often _______________
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Most misbehavior is hard to punish immediately
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Punishment conveys little information
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An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing
Misuse of Rewards
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Rewards must be tied to the behavior you want to _________________
o Don’t praise mediocre work!
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C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 8 of 8
Good rewarders have to understand types of reinforcers
External & Internal Reinforcers
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External reinforcers
o Reinforcers that are not ___________ related to the activity being reinforced
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Internal reinforcers
o Reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced
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External reinforcers may undermine internal reinforcers
Section Five:
Social-Cognitive Learning Theories
Operational Definition
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Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through:
o Observation and imitation of others
o Positive consequences
o ___________________ processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs
Learning from Others
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Observational learning
o The acquisition of new behavior, information, or concepts through exposure to
others and the consequences they experience
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Can occur from parent to child, amongst peers, or from viewing media
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Depends on multiple factors
S-C Theories and Violence
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The following intervene in the relationship between what we see, what we learn, and
how we respond:
o Perceptions
o Interpretations
o Personality dispositions (aggressiveness, sociability)