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Study Guide for Learning Evaluation #4 Modules 18, 19, 20 , 26, 27, 28, 25 General Psychology 2301 – Dr. Green Module 18 – Classical Conditioning Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience Associative Learning learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences Pavlov’s Experiment – Classical Conditioning UCS --- elicits UR During association (conditioning) Neutral associated with UCS - Neutral becomes CS After association (conditioning) CS -- elicits CR (the same as UR but as a result of CS now) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Page 1 of 12 originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response Generalization tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS Strength of CR Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS alone) Spontaneous recovery of CR Extinction (CS alone) Pause Spontaneous Recovery reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR Discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS Behaviorism Page 2 of 12 John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon consensus today recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes Module 19 – Operant Learning Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment operates (acts) on environment produces consequences Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Skinner Box chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer contains devices to record responses Learning Page 3 of 12 a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience Shaping operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal Reinforcer any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Shaping operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal Primary Reinforcer innately reinforcing stimulus i.e., satisfies a biological need Conditioned Reinforcer stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer secondary reinforcer Chaining behavior Example was Einstein the bird Multiple behaviors follow each other, with reinforcement at the end of the sequence Schedules of reinforcement Page 4 of 12 Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz Punishment aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows powerful controller of unwanted behavior Cognitive Map mental representation of the layout of one’s environment Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it Page 5 of 12 Module 20 – Learning by Observation Observational Learning learning by observing others Modeling process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy Alfred Bandura’s Experiments Bobo doll we look and we learn Module 26 – Motivation Motivation a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior Motivational drives or needs Behavioral/external elicited by stimulus associated/connected to innately connected stimulus Page 6 of 12 obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant consequences Biological increase/decrease stimulation (arousal) activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc. decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc. maintain homeostasis, balance Social imitate positive models be a part of a group or a valued member Cognition refers to the process of coming to know and understand; the process of encoding, storing, processing, and retrieving information. It is generally associated with the question of "what" (e.g., what happened, what is going on now, what is the meaning of that information.) Affect refers to the emotional interpretation of perceptions, information, or knowledge. It is generally associated with one’s attachment (positive or negative) to people, objects, ideas, etc. and asks the question "How do I feel about this knowledge or information?" Conation refers to the connection of knowledge and affect to behavior and is associated with the issue of "why.“ It is the personal, intentional, planned, deliberate, goal-oriented, or striving component of motivation, the proactive aspect of behavior. o what are my intentions and goals; o what am I going to do; o what are my plans and commitments? Spiritual understand purpose of one's life connect self to ultimate unknowns Drive-Reduction Theory the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need Page 7 of 12 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization needs Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential Esteem needs Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others Belongingness and love needs Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation Safety needs Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable Physiological needs Need to satisfy hunger and thirst Attribution Theory explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or not under control. Achievement can be attributed to 1. effort 2. ability 3. level of task difficulty 4. luck Page 8 of 12 Causal dimensions of behavior are 1. locus of control (internal/external) 2. stability (predictability) 3. controllability Hunger Glucose the form of sugar that circulates in the blood provides the major source of energy for body tissues when its level is low, we feel hunger Set Point the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight Basal Metabolic Rate body’s base rate of energy expenditure Eating disorders Anorexia Nervosa when a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly (>15%) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve usually an adolescent female Bulimia Nervosa disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of highcalorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise Page 9 of 12 Module 27 – Sexual Motivation Sex is a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values. Beach (1956) noted that, although sexual behavior is indispensable for a species, it is not indispensable for an individual ("no one ever died for the lack of sex" [p. 31). Sexual Response Cycle (EPOR) the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson excitement plateau orgasm resolution Refractory Period resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm Sexual Disorder a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning Estrogen a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males in nonhuman females, levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity Testosterone most important of the male sex hormones both males and females have it, but the extra testosterone in males stimulates growth of sex organs in the fetus and development of the male sex characteristics during puberty Stereotypic Gender difference in Sexual Behavior Men Women More interested in sex; initiate and think about sex more often Want sex with more partners Less interested in sex Not as interested in sex with many partners Desire sex without emotional Desire sex with emotional commitment commitment Focus on youth and physical Focus on social and economic status attractiveness when choosing a sex when choosing a sex partner partner Feel more jealous when partner is Feel more jealous when partner is physically unfaithful emotionally unfaithful Page 10 of 12 Forces affecting sexual motivation Module 28 – Motivation at Work Achievement Motivation a desire for significant accomplishment for mastery of things, people, or ideas for attaining a high standard Task Leadership goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals Social Leadership group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support Theory X assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money workers should be directed from above Theory Y assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity Page 11 of 12 Module 25 – Intelligence Intelligence ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations Intelligence Test a method of assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them to those of others, using numerical scores Mental Age a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test revised by Terman at Stanford University Social Intelligence the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully Emotional Intelligence (EQ) ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions Creativity the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) most widely used intelligence test subtests Aptitude Test a test designed to predict a person’s future performance aptitude is the capacity to learn Achievement Test a test designed to assess what a person has learned Standardization defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group” Normal Curve the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes Page 12 of 12