Download Study Guide for Learning Evaluation #4

Study Guide for Learning Evaluation #4
Modules 18, 19, 20 , 26, 27, 28, 25
General Psychology 2301 – Dr. Green
Module 18 – Classical Conditioning
Learning
 relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
Associative Learning
 learning that two events occur together
 two stimuli
 a response and its consequences
Pavlov’s Experiment – Classical Conditioning
UCS --- elicits UR
During association (conditioning)
Neutral associated with UCS - Neutral becomes CS
After association (conditioning)
CS -- elicits CR (the same as UR but as a result of CS now)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a
response
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
 salivation when food is in the mouth
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned
stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
 learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

Acquisition
 the initial stage in classical conditioning
 the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so
that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
 in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
Generalization
 tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses
Extinction
 diminishing of a CR
 in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS
Strength
of CR
Acquisition
(CS+UCS)
Extinction
(CS
alone)
Spontaneous
recovery of
CR
Extinction
(CS
alone)
Pause
Spontaneous Recovery
 reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
Discrimination
 in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and
other stimuli that do not signal a UCS
Behaviorism
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John B. Watson
 viewed psychology as objective science
 generally agreed-upon consensus today
 recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental
processes
Module 19 – Operant Learning
Operant Conditioning
 type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by
reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
 operates (acts) on environment
 produces consequences
Law of Effect
 Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences
become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely
Skinner Box
 chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or
water reinforcer
 contains devices to record responses
Learning
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 a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
Shaping
 operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward
closer approximations of a desired goal
Reinforcer
 any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Shaping
 operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward
closer approximations of a desired goal
Primary Reinforcer
 innately reinforcing stimulus
 i.e., satisfies a biological need
Conditioned Reinforcer
 stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with
primary reinforcer
 secondary reinforcer
Chaining behavior
Example was Einstein the bird
Multiple behaviors follow each other, with reinforcement at the end of the
sequence
Schedules of reinforcement
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



Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule
 reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
 faster you respond the more rewards you get
 different ratios
 very high rate of responding
 like piecework pay
Variable Ratio (VR)
 reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
 average ratios
 like gambling, fishing
 very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability
Fixed Interval (FI)
 reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
 response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward
draws near
Variable Interval (VI)
 reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
 produces slow steady responding
 like pop quiz
Punishment
 aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows
 powerful controller of unwanted behavior
Cognitive Map
 mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
 Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a
cognitive map of it
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Module 20 – Learning by Observation
Observational Learning
 learning by observing others
Modeling
 process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Mirror Neurons
 frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when
observing another doing so
 may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
Alfred Bandura’s Experiments
 Bobo doll
 we look and we learn
Module 26 – Motivation
Motivation
 a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
Motivational drives or needs
Behavioral/external
elicited by stimulus associated/connected to innately connected stimulus
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obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or escape/avoid undesired,
unpleasant consequences
Biological
increase/decrease stimulation (arousal)
activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.
decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.
maintain homeostasis, balance
Social
imitate positive models
be a part of a group or a valued member
Cognition refers to the process of coming to know and understand; the process of
encoding, storing, processing, and retrieving information.
It is generally associated with the question of "what" (e.g., what happened,
what is going on now, what is the meaning of that information.)
Affect refers to the emotional interpretation of perceptions, information, or
knowledge.
It is generally associated with one’s attachment (positive or negative) to
people, objects, ideas, etc. and asks the question "How do I feel about this
knowledge or information?"
Conation refers to the connection of knowledge and affect to behavior and is
associated with the issue of "why.“
It is the personal, intentional, planned, deliberate, goal-oriented, or striving
component of motivation, the proactive aspect of behavior.
o what are my intentions and goals;
o what am I going to do;
o what are my plans and commitments?
Spiritual
understand purpose of one's life
connect self to ultimate unknowns
Drive-Reduction Theory
 the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a
drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-actualization needs
Need to live up to one’s
fullest and unique potential
Esteem needs
Need for self-esteem,
achievement, competence,
and independence; need for
recognition and respect from others
Belongingness and love needs
Need to love and be loved, to belong
and be accepted; need to avoid
loneliness and alienation
Safety needs
Need to feel that the world is organized and
predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
Physiological needs
Need to satisfy hunger and thirst
Attribution Theory
explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions."
These attributions are either internal or external
and are either under control or not under control.
Achievement can be attributed to
1. effort
2. ability
3. level of task difficulty
4. luck
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Causal dimensions of behavior are
1. locus of control (internal/external)
2. stability (predictability)
3. controllability
Hunger
Glucose
 the form of sugar that circulates in the blood
 provides the major source of energy for body tissues
 when its level is low, we feel hunger
Set Point
 the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set
 when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered
metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
Basal Metabolic Rate
 body’s base rate of energy expenditure

Eating disorders
 Anorexia Nervosa
 when a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly (>15%)
underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve
 usually an adolescent female
 Bulimia Nervosa
 disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of highcalorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive
exercise
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Module 27 – Sexual Motivation
Sex is a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by
learning and values.
Beach (1956) noted that, although sexual behavior is indispensable for a species, it
is not indispensable for an individual ("no one ever died for the lack of sex" [p. 31).
Sexual Response Cycle (EPOR)
 the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson
 excitement
 plateau
 orgasm
 resolution
Refractory Period
 resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another
orgasm
Sexual Disorder
 a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning
Estrogen
 a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males
 in nonhuman females, levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual
receptivity
Testosterone
 most important of the male sex hormones
 both males and females have it, but the extra testosterone in males
stimulates growth of sex organs in the fetus and development of the male
sex characteristics during puberty
Stereotypic Gender difference in Sexual Behavior
Men
Women
More interested in sex; initiate and
think about sex more often
Want sex with more partners
Less interested in sex
Not as interested in sex with many
partners
Desire sex without emotional
Desire sex with emotional
commitment
commitment
Focus on youth and physical
Focus on social and economic status
attractiveness when choosing a sex when choosing a sex partner
partner
Feel more jealous when partner is
Feel more jealous when partner is
physically unfaithful
emotionally unfaithful
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Forces affecting sexual motivation
Module 28 – Motivation at Work
Achievement Motivation
 a desire for significant accomplishment
 for mastery of things, people, or ideas
 for attaining a high standard
Task Leadership
 goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses
attention on goals
Social Leadership
 group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and
offers support
Theory X
 assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically
motivated by money
 workers should be directed from above
Theory Y
 assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to
achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity
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Module 25 – Intelligence
Intelligence
 ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to
adapt to new situations
Intelligence Test
 a method of assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing
them to those of others, using numerical scores
Mental Age
 a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet
 chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of
performance
Stanford-Binet
 the widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test
 revised by Terman at Stanford University
Social Intelligence
 the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing
oneself successfully
Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
 ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
Creativity
 the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
 most widely used intelligence test
 subtests
Aptitude Test
 a test designed to predict a person’s future performance
 aptitude is the capacity to learn
Achievement Test
 a test designed to assess what a person has learned
Standardization
 defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a
pretested “standardization group”
Normal Curve
 the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many
physical and psychological attributes
 most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the
extremes
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