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Chapter 6
Learning and Memory
What is Learning
4 Factors that forms the definition of learning:
1. Learning is inferred from a change in
behavior/performance;
2. Learning results in an inferred change in
memory;
3. Learning is the result of experience; and
4. Learning is relatively permanent
Theories of Learning
1. Classical
Conditioning
- a stimulus
acquires the capacity
to evoke a reflexive
response that was
originally evoked by
a different stimulus
- Proposed by Ivan
Pavlov
Termininologies
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
- A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without
any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the
response to occur)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
- An unlearned reaction/response to an uncontioned
stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
- A previously neutral stimulus that has, through
conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned
response
Conditioned Response (CR)
- A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs
because of prior conditioning
Theories of Learning
1. Operant Conditioning
- learning in which voluntary
(controllable) behavior is
strengthened if it is reinforced
and weakened if it is punished
- behavior which is reinforced
tends to be repeated (i.e.
strengthened); behavior which
is not reinforced tends to die
out-or be extinguished (i.e.
weakened).
- Proposed B.F. Skinner
Types of Responses or Operants
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment
that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that
increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that
decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.
Principles of Reinforcements
Positive reinforcement
- Give an organism a pleasant stimulus
when the operant response is made
Negative reinforcement
- Take away an unpleasant stimulus when
the operant response is made
Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between
punishment and negative reinforcement.
There are many problems with using punishment, such as:
- Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.
- Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a
way to cope with problems.
- Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors,
e.g., fear of school.
- Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells
you what not to do.
Theories of Learning
1. Observational
Learning
- Also known as social learning
theory
- Occurs when an observer’s
behavior changes after viewing
the behavior of a model
- Proposed Albert Bandura
What is Intelligence?
Intelligence
capacity for goal-directed and
adaptive behavior
involves certain abilities like:
profit from experience
solve problems
reason effectively
achieve goals
Are There Multiple
Intelligences?
Social Intelligence
the know-how involved in
comprehending social situations and
managing oneself successfully
Emotional Intelligence
ability to perceive, express, understand,
and regulate emotions
Are There Multiple
Intelligences?
Savant Syndrome
condition in which a person otherwise
limited in mental ability has an
amazing specific skill e.g.
computation
drawing
Gardner’s Types of
Intelligence
Assessing Intelligence
Aptitude Test
a test designed to predict a person’s
future performance
aptitude is the capacity to learn
Achievement Test
a test designed to assess what a person
has learned
The Dynamics of
Intelligence
Mental Retardation
a condition of limited mental ability
indicated by intelligence scores below 70
produces difficulty in adapting to the
demands of life
varies from mild to profound
The Dynamics of
Intelligence
Degrees of Mental Retardation
Level
Typical Intelligence Scores
Mild
50-70
85%
May learn academic skills up to
sixth-grade level. Adults may, with
assistance, achieve self-supporting
social and vocational skills.
Moderate
35-49
10
May progress to second-grade level.
academically. Adults may contribute
to their own support by labor in
sheltered workshops.
Severe
20-34
3-4
May learn to talk and perform simple
work tasks under close supervision
but are generally unable to profit from
vocational training.
Below 20
1-2
Require constant aid and supervision.
Profound
Percentage of the Retarded
Adaptation to Demands of Life
The Dynamics of
Intelligence
Down syndrome
retardation and associated physical
disorders caused by an extra
chromosome in genetic make-up
MEMORY
Memory is learning that has persisted over time; it is information that has
been acquired, stored, and can be retrieved. To a psychologist, evidence that
learning persists includes these three measures of retention, which we will
explore later in the chapter:
• recall—retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious
awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. A fill-in-the-blank
question tests your recall.
• recognition—identifying items previously learned. A multiple-choice
question
tests your recognition.
• relearning—learning something more quickly when you learn it a
second or later
time. When you study for a final exam or engage a language used in
early childhood,
you will relearn the material more easily than you did initially.
MEMORY






encoding the processing of information into the memory system—for
example, by extracting meaning.
storage the retention of encoded information over time.
retrieval the process of getting information out of memory storage.
sensory memory the immediate, very brief recording of sensory
information in the memory system.
short - term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly,
such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the
information is stored or forgotten.
long - term memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of
the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Information Processing System
Environment
Working
Memory
Short-Term
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
amnesia Memory loss that occurs without
other mental difficulties.
retrograde amnesia Amnesia in which
memory is lost for occurrences prior to a
certain event. An inability to retrieve
information from one’s past.
anterograde amnesia Amnesia in which
memory is lost for events that follow an
injury. An inability to form new memories.
Improving Memory
 Rehearse repeatedly. To master material, use
distributed (spaced) practice. To learn a concept, give
yourself many separate study sessions. New memories
are weak; exercise them and they will strengthen.
 Make the material meaningful. You can build a
network of retrieval cues by taking text and class notes
in your own words. Apply the concepts to your own life.
Form images. Understand and organize information.
Relate the material to what you already know or have
experienced. Restate concepts in your own words.
Improving Memory
 Activate retrieval cues. Mentally re - create the
situation and the mood in which your original learning
occurred. Jog your memory by allowing one thought to
cue the next.
 Use mnemonic devices. Asso ciate items with peg
words. Make up a story that incorporates vivid images of
the items. Chunk information into acronyms. Create
rhythmic rhymes (“i before e, except after c”).
 Minimize interference. Study before sleep. Do not
schedule back - to - back study times for topics that are
likely to interfere with each other, such as Spanish and
French.
Improving Memory
 Sleep more. During sleep, the brain reorganizes and
consolidates information for long-term memory. Sleep
deprivation disrupts this process.
 Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and
to find out what you don’t yet know.
Don’t be lulled into overconfidence by your ability to
recognize information. Outline sections on a blank page.
Define the terms and concepts listed at each chapter’s
end before turning back to their definitions. Take
practice tests.