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AP Psychology
Review
Chapters 1-9
History

Early Schools of Psychology
Structuralism
 Functionalism
 Associationism

Structuralism

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

Wilhelm Wundt
First psychological
“laboratory” in
Leipzig, Germany
Introspection--”look
inward”
Break consciousness
into atomic
sensations
Functionalism



Rejected
Structuralism
Figures: William
James--Principles of
Psychology, John
Dewey
What do people do
and Why
Associationism



Ebbinghaus--Memory
study
Thorndike-”Law of
Effect”
Ivan Pavlov-classical
conditioning (many
place with
behaviorism)
Behaviorism



John Watson
“Little Albert”
Stimulus
discrimination,
stimulus
generalization
B.F.Skinner


Father of operant
conditioning
Skinner Box
Gestalt Psychology



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
Max Wertheimer
Kurt Koffka
Wolfgang Kohler-insight
Whole is greater than
the sum of its parts
Figure-ground
perception
Cognitivism


Ulric Neisser-Cognitive Psychology
Serial processing vs parallel processing
Biological Psychology


Roger Sperry
Split-brain research
Evolutionary Psychology




Evolutionary bases
for behavior
Mating preferences,
etc
Leda Cosmides
David Buss
Psychodynamic

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Sigmund Freud
Father of the
unconscious mind
Id, Ego, Superego
Dream interpretation
Defense mechanisms
Neo-Freudians
Humanistic


Abraham Maslowhiearchy of basic
needs
Carl Rogersunconditional positive
regard
Chapter 2
Research Methods
Statistics
Research Methods
Methods
Pros
Cons
Naturalistic
Observation
Case Study
Natural
No control
context
Detailed info Generalization?
Tests,
Scoring,
Real life vs.
surveys, etc Numbers
answers
Experiments Control of IV May not apply to
real world
Experimental Method





Control and Experimental groups
Independent variable-administered to
experimental group only
Dependent variable-measured in both
experimental and control groups
Statistical significance to infer causality
Reject null hypothesis (IV has no effect)
Experimental Design
Type
Definition
Controlled
Random
assignment
IV, DV
QuasiNo random
experiment assignment,
al
control
Correlation No
al
manipulation
Advantage
Disadvantage
True causal
inference
May not apply
to population
Naturalistic,
larger
sample size,
etc
No causal
inference,
may not apply
to population.
Double-blind and Placebo
Told drug
Given drug
Told placebo
Given drug
(Drug Effect)
Told drug
Given placebo
(Placebo Effect)
Told placebo
Given placebo
Researcher doesn’t know who is in what group
Correlation




Looks at relationship between two
variables
Positive correlation: Close to +1
Negative correlation: Close to -1
No correlation: Close to 0
Research Ethics



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Deception
Informed Consent
Debriefing
Confidentiality
Use of Pain
Use of Animals
IRB (Institutional Review Board)
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics







Information about one set of data
Mean
Median
Mode
Frequency distribution
Standard deviation
Normal distribution
Normal Distribution

Mean=Median=Mode

If Mean>Median,
Mode, then Positively
skewed
If Mean<median,
mode, then
Negatively skewed

Correlation & Regression



Correlation Coefficient: uses Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient
Scores from -1(perfect inverse relation) to
0 (no relation) to +1 (perfect positive
relation)
DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION
Inferential Statistics



Needs large population size for higher
confidence
Sample should be representative
Goal: Reject null hypothesis

Null hypothesis--changes are due to chance
and not independent variable
Type I & Type II errors
Null is True
Failure to reject null
CORRECT
Null is False
Failure to reject null
TYPE II Error
Null is True
Reject Null
TYPE I Error
Null is False
Reject theNull
CORRECT
Chapter 3
Biological Bases for Behavior
Central Nervous System
•Brain
•Spinal Cord
I
n
t
e
r
n
e
u
o
r
o
n
s
Sensory Afferent neurons
To spine
Motor Efferent Neurons
From spine
Spinal Reflex
Spinal cord acts alone
Receives sensory afferent message
Sends motor efferent message
Brain gets message AFTER action
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic
Autonomic
Somatic nervous system
Soma=Body
Skeletal/striated muscles
Conscious control
Autonomic Nervous System
Involuntary
Non-skeletal muscles
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous System
STRESS
Catabolic--expends energy
• Pupils dilate
• Bronchi relax
• Increase heart rate
• Inhibits digestion
• Contracts blood vessels
Parasympathetic=PEACE
Anabolic--stores energy
Contracts pupils
Bronchi constricts
Slows heart rate
Stimulates digestion
Dilates blood vessels
Return to homeostasis
Some suggest that in today’s society we
have an in stress related illnesses, like
ulcers, heart disease, etc because we
have an active sympathetic nervous
system with little opportunity to physically
release the energy to return to
homeostasis.
We can’t fight or flee our boss, work,
school.
The neuron communicates
electrochemically
It converts chemical energy to electrical
energy to chemical energy
Positive sodium ions (Na+) rush in, pushing out Potassium
Ions (K+)
Acetylcholine (Ach)




Memory-in hippocampus
Movement--PNS
Blocked in Alzheimer’s patients
Excitatory
Dopamine

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Movement
Attention
Learning
Pleasure--cocaine blocks reuptake
Too little--Parkinson’s disease
Too much--Schizophrenia
Serotonin

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Arousal
Sleep
Mood
Appetite
LSD inhibits serotonin (waking sleep)
GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric
acid)


Inhibits axons-increasing threshold of
excitation
Linked to seizures
Neurotransmitter fun facts
Curare (So. American poison dart frog)
antagonist for A Ch.
Causes paralysis
Black Widow Spider
Blocks A Ch receptor sites.
Agonists--supercharges NT
Causes seizures, convulsions.
Brain Structures and Functions
The Hindbrain:
Medulla Oblongata
Pons
Cerebellum
Medulla Oblongata:
Necessary for survival:
•Controls
•Heartbeat
•Respiration
•Swallowing
•Digestion
Pons: “the Bridge”
Bridge or relay
Sleep
Arousal
Cerebellum: “little brain
B alance
Coordination
Much larger in
animals as a
proportion of
brain
The Midbrain
RAS: Reticular Activating System
Sleep
Arousal
Attention
Links to the
hindbrain
The Forebrain
•Cerebral Cortex
•Limbic System
•Hippocampus
•Amygdala
•Septum
•Thalamus
•Hypothalamus
The Cerebral Cortex



Outer layer of the brain
4 lobes
Somatosensory and Motor Cortex
The “Homunculus”
If we draw our bodies to
the scale based on the
proportion of cortical
areas dedicated to them,
we would look like this
<------------------------(And you thought you
were having problems
finding a date to
Homecoming)
The Hippocampus--Greek for “sea
horse” for its shape
Involved in learning and memory
Amygdala
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Anger
Aggression
Fear
PTSD study: may be genetic precursor if
amygdala is slow to “turn off”
Thalamus
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“Relay Center”
Sends sensory information to cerebral
cortex
Also linked to RAS for sleep, arousal
The Hypothalamus:
The 4 F’s
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Food
Flight
Fight
Sex
Hemispheres of the Brain

Left hemisphere: language function
 Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas
Broca--speak grammatically
Wernicke’s--language comprehension
Roger Sperry: split-brain


Severed corpus callosum in epileptic
patients
Chimeric face study
Verbally say right eye image
 Points to left eye image

Four Lobes of Brain
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Frontal--higher level thinking
Parietal--primary somatosensory cortex
Temporal-audition (hearing)
Occipital-vision
Brain Imaging

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
EEG--Electroencephalogram
Measures brain wave activity
ERPs (event-related potentials) :
minimizes interference
CAT Scan

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Computerized Axial
tomography
Cross-sectional
images of the brain
Uses x-rays
MRI

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
Magnetic resonance
imaging
Uses magnetic field
instead of x-rays
fMRI-functional MRI,
shows area of activity
in the brain
PET scan

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Positron emission
tomography
Traces radioactive
glucose
Shows brain
functions,
levels/areas of activity
Endocrine System
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Regulates growth, reproduction,
metabolism and behavior
Controls glands
Releases hormones
Uses negative-feedback loop
Glands

Adrenal

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Secrets epinephrine
and norepinephrine
Fight or flight
response
Controls 50 other
hormones

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Thryoid gland
Produces thyroxine
Too much-hyperthyroidism-weight loss, weak
muscles
Too little-hypothyroidism--slow
metabolis, weight
gain
Pituitary Gland

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“Master gland”
Regulated other endocrine glands
Controlled by the hypothalamus
ACTH-adrenocorticotropic hormone-stress hormone
Begins “fight or flight” response
Chapter 4
Sensation & Perception
Psychophysics


Absolute threshold
Found using signal detection theory
Present
Absent
Yes
Hit
False Alarm
No
Miss
Correct
Rejection
Difference Threshold/ JND



Just noticeable difference between two
stimuli
Weber’s law
JND is a proportion of stimulus intensity
Sensory Adaptation


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Become accustomed to stimulus and no
longer respond
Also called habituation
Dishabituation--change in stimulus causes
us to notice it again
Vision
As Eye See It
Parts of the Eye


Iris--color of the
eye
Pupil-opening


Dilates for low light
Constricts for high
light
Focusing

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
The lens thickens or thins to focus
(accomodation)
The muscles of the eye make it elongate
or shorten
The two work together to help us focus
The Retina



1. Ganglion cellsaxons are the
optic nerve
2. Amacrine and
horizontal cellsinterneurons
communicate
laterally
3. Bipolarinterneurons
connect two ways
Neuronal paths
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Rods and cones send information through
bipolar cells to ganglion cells
Ganglion cells are optic nerve
Optic nerves of eyes form optic chiasm
Optic chiasm crosses hemispheres
Routed through thalamus to primary visual
cortex
Color and Acuity


Cones (blue)
give us color -greatest
distribution
around the
fovea
Rods (red) can
not see color
Two Theories of Color Vision

Trichromatic Theory

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
Primary colors (red,
green, blue) combine
for all colors
Three specialized
cones for each color
Color-blindness due to
problems with cones
Genes discovered that
cones produce huesensitive pigments

Opponent-process
theory
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Two sets of opposing
colors
Red-green and blueyellow (also blackwhite)
As red increases,
green decreases (no
reddish-green color)
Proof-afterimages
Depth Perception

Monocular Cues
Two-dimensional
Able to be recognized with one eye

Relative Size

More distant objects are smaller than
those in foreground
Texture Gradient
Loss of
texture on
more
distant
bricks
Interposition

Objects blocking other objects are perceived as
closer
Linear Perspective

Parallel lines
appear to
converge at
the vanishing
point
Binocular Depth Cues


Binocular
convergence--as
eyes turn inward,
object is closer
Binocular
disparity-difference
between view of
two eyes
Gestalt Principles
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Closure
Figure-ground
Proximity
Similarity
Continuity
Common Fate
Closure
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Fill in the missing
blanksGestalt principle
Figure-Ground Perception
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
Light figures on dark
background
Dark figures on light
background
Two ways to see it
Depth Ambiguity

The Necker cube can
be seen two different
ways
Proximity

Cluster items
perceptually that are
next to each other or
near
Similarity

Perceptually groups
things that are alike
Continuity

Follow smooth lines
rather than disjunct
NOT
Common Fate

Perceive things
moving together as
belonging together
Stroboscopic Motion

See movies as
movement, not series
of individual images
Perceptual Constancy
Perceptual rules of constancy allow for optical illusions
Size Constancy

It appears that the
monster in back is
larger, but is really the
same size. We use
depth cues to assume
that farther away is
larger.
Shape Constancy

We know that objects
retain their shape
even in our sensation
of the object changes
Color Constancy

The two squares are
actually the same
color.
Depth Constancy


Müller-Lyer Illusion
The lines are the
same length, but we
perceive one to be
longer.
Ponzo Illusion

Depth cues make the
objects in the back
seem larger.
Zollner Illusion

Lines are actually
parallel
Phi Effect/Phenomenon


Blinking lights give
the appearance of
movement
Arrows on road sign,
etc
Audition
Hear, hear
Mechanics

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Amplitude: intensity
(loudness)
Pitch: tone (high
pitch vs. low pitch)
Timbre: quality of
sound
Hearing
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Auditory Canal
Tympanic membrane
Malleus, Incus,
Stapes
Oval Window
Cochlea
Theories of Hearing

Place Theory (Helmholtz)

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Frequency Theory

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
Pitch is determined by what part of the basilar
membrane is stimulated
Basilar membrane fires the same frequency as sound
(volley principle--explains who higher frequencies are
produced)
Duplicity Theory

Sounds are heard by combination of place and
frequency
Taste

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
Chemical Sense
Papillae on tongue
are specialized for
different chemicals
Now 5
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Salt
Sour
Bitter
Sweet
Umami
Olfaction Stinks!
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Chemical Sense
Direct path to brain
Olfactory epithelium
has specialized
receptors; take
chemical energy from
odors and converts to
electrochemical
Skin Sense

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

Haptic--pressure,
temperature, pain
Pressure--shallow
and deep
Temperature--warm
and cold fibers
Pain
Kinesthesis
Body sense
Tells us where our parts our
Skeletal
Vestibular



Vestibular sacs and
semicircular canals
hold fluid
Motion moves hairs in
fluid
Acts like gyroscope
Chapter 5
Consciousness
Attention Please

Selective Attention--only attend to one
stimulus
Cocktail party phenomenon--follow only one
conversation
 Mindfulness/mindlessness
 Stroop effect

Filter Theories



Sensory filter (Broadbent)-we filter at the
sensory level
Top-down filter--we recognize our names
even in unattended ears
Signal-attenuating mechanism-information is not totally blocked, just
weakened.
Attentional Resource
Theories


Single pool theory--divide resources from
one “pool” limits others while multi-tasking
Multiple-pool model--tasks from different
modalities do not compete as much as
tasks from same sensory modalities
Consciousness

Two purposes of consciousness

1. Monitoring--our awareness

2. Controlling--behavior based on
monitoring
3 levels of Consciousness



Preconsciousness--available but not in our
consciousness
Subconscious/unconscious--information
not available to our conscious mind
Consciousness--our awareness
Preconscious

Tip of the tongue phenomenon--just like
the name implies. Trying to recall
information that we know but can’t retrieve
easily.
Preconscious

Subliminal Perception
Information introduced below level of
conscious awareness
 Drive-in Movie Hoax
 Subliminal tapes
 Priming

Backwards music
 Wizard of Oz

Preconscious
Blind-sight
Visual cortex of the
brain is damaged so
can’t consciously
“see” but can
respond

Subconscious


Freud-the
unconscious mind-home of repressed,
unpleasant conflicts,
desires, skeletons
Jung--collective
unconscious
Sleep



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
Stage 1: Beta, theta
Stage 2: Theta, sleep
spindles, Kcomplexes
Stage 3: <50% delta
waves
Stage 4: >50% delta
REM: beta, theta
“paradoxical sleep”
Sleep disorders

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

Insomnia--difficulty sleeping
Narcolepsy--falls asleep unexpectedly
Sleep apnea--stop breathing while sleep
Somnambulism--sleep walking (usually
during stage 3 & 4)
Dream Theories



Psychodynamic--”royal road to the
unconscious mind”
Cognitive--problem-solving
Activation-synthesis---attempt to make
sense of random neural firing
Hypnosis



Deep relaxation theory
Epiphenomenon theory: role-playing by
subject is genuine
Neodissociative theory: separate part of
conscious mind; hidden observer
Psychoactive Drugs

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
Narcotics--opiates
CNS depressants--alcohol, barbituates
CNS stimulants--Caffeine, cocaine, etc
Hallucinogens--LSD, mescaline, MDMA
Chapter 6
Learning
Classical Conditioning

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Ivan Pavlov
Conditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned
Stimulus
Conditioned/
Unconditioned
Response
Types of Conditioning

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
Forward--CS is before the US
Delay--Time between CS and US
Trace--CS presented, removed, before US
Simultaneous-CS, US same time
Backward-US then CS; ineffective
Stages of Classical
Conditioning

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
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Savings
More terms

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Stimulus discrimination
Stimulus generalization
Garcia--modality of CS/US
CER-conditioned emotional response
(Garcia effect)
Operant Conditioning


Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Skinner
Reinforcers--increases likelihood behavior will
repeat/continue
 Punishers--decreases likelihood behavior will
repeat/continue

Operant Conditioning
Positive (Give)
Negative (Take)
Reinforce
(Continue)
Give wanted
Take unwanted
Punish
(Extinguis)
Give unwanted
Take wanted
Schedules
Fixed
Variable
Ratio
(Attempts)
After X
attempts, gets
prize
After ?
Attempts,
Gets prize
Interval
(Time)
After X time,
gets prize
After ? Time,
Gets prize
Tolman: Latent learning



Rats in a maze
Kept cognitive map
Showed “hidden” learning
Bandura: Social learning



Observational learning
Bobo the clown
TV violence
Three Kinds of Memory



Episodic
Declarative
Procedural
Episodic
Events people have experienced or witnessed

Flashbulb memory
Where were you when….?
Declarative

Memory of general knowledge
What is 3 times 2?
When was the Declaration of
Independence signed?
Procedural

Skills or procedures learned
Riding a
bike
Playing a
game
Three Processes of Memory



Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding

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
Visual codes
Acoustic code
Semantic codes
Recall image
Repeat it silently, outloud
Make it have meaning
(mnemonic devices)
Storage



Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
Organizational Systems
Repeat it over and over
Pairing and using
Making it fit into existing
categories
Retrieval

Context-Dependent Memory


State-Dependent Memory


Place, situation
Mood, state of consciousness
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

“It’s uh, umm, starts with a p or t…..”
Three Stages of Memory



Sensory Memory (SM)
Short-term Memory (STM)
Long-term Memory (LTM)
Sensory memory

Iconic memory


Eidetic imagery


image
“photographic”
Echoic memory

sounds
Short-term memory




Primacy Effect--first thing received
Recency Effect-last thing received
Chunking-groups
Interference


Proactive Inhibition(PI)-new material learned makes
it difficult to remember previously learned material
Retroactive Inhibition (RI)-previously learned
material makes it harder to learn new material
Long-term memory



Can be retrieved much later
Benefits from rehearsal
Schemas
Memory Tasks



Recognition
Recall
Relearning
Recognition: recognizing what is in
memory
Recall





Cued recall--given a prompt
Serial recall--repeat in order (Presidents)
Free recall--any order
Paired-associates--two lists of matched
things (friends order for snacks)
Total recall
Chapter 8
Language, Thinking and
Problem-Solving
Language Terms
Term
Definition
Example
Phones
Smallest
Rolling r’s,
nasal a, etc
discernible
unit of speech
sounds.
Some are
culturally
unique.
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Speech
Phonemes sounds
users of a
language
can identify
Vowel and
consonant
sounds
H, I, T in
hit
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Morphemes
Smallest unit
of sound that
denotes
meaning.
Walked has
2—
Walk and ed.
Suffixes,
prefixes, etc.
TERM
Syntax
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
The way
users put
together
words in a
sentence,
like word
order.
Subject->
verb->
object.
I lost the
key, but in
Spanish, the
key is lost to
me.
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Semantics
The study of
the meaning
of words.
Call me a
cab.
You’re a cab.
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Crying
First form of
verbal
expression.
Distinct cries
for hunger,
dirty diaper,
tired.
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Cooing
Infant
vocalization
that
produces all
the phones.
Universal,
even for deaf
students.
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Holophrastic
speech
One word
utterances—
holophrases.
Juice, ball,
Mama
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Telegraphic
speech
Articles,
prepositions
and
functional
morphemes
are omitted.
Me juice.
Daddy up.
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Overextension
Application
of word to
more things,
ideas,
situations
than is
appropriate
for the word.
All four
legged
animals are
“doggy”
TERM
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Overregularizatio
n
OverI runned
application of from the
language
mouses.
rules.
TERM
DEFINITION
EXAMPLE
LAD
Language
Acquistion
Device
Innate human
predisposition
to acquire
language
during a
critical period.
The movie
Nell
Feral
children
Genie
TERM
DEFINITION
EXAMPLE
Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis
Cultural
differences in
language
influence
thoughts and
cognitive
systems.
Incorrectly,
Inuits do
NOT have
many
words for
snow.
Thinking and Problem-Solving
Types of Thinking




Analysis
Synthesis
Divergent thinking
Convergent thinking
Analysis


Breaking down into smaller parts
For example, critiquing a movie, you
consider the story, plot, acting, etc
Synthesis


Combining individual components into a
whole
For example, using knowledge of learning
theories and language acquisition to
create new theory combining the two
concepts
Divergent thinking


“Brainstorming”
Create as many different solutions as
possible
Convergent Thinking

Narrow down from many to one, best
solution.
Problem-Solving


Well-structured: clear way to find solution
Ill-structured: no clear path to solution.
For example: What college should I
attend? Who should I marry?
Strategies


Algorithms: guarantee a solution to wellstructured problems, but may be timeconsuming. Recipes, formulae, etc
Heuristics: Short cuts
Types of heuristics


Representativeness--use of patterns from
population to make predictions (base rate-”odds”)
Availability--uses available data that
comes to mind
Problems with problemsolving



Mental set--can’t see beyond normal way
of thinking
Functional fixedness--can’t see different
uses beyond norm
Transfer--old learning may interfere (or
help) new learning
Decision Theory



Utility-maximization theory: we make
decisions that bring us the most
pleasure/least pain
Subjective-utility theory: different for each
individual
Satisficing: consider our options and
select first one that is satisfactory.
Problems with Decision
Making



Overconfidence
Gambler’s fallacy: false belief that
sequential events are not random
Sunk-cost fallacy: continue to invest with
hopes of recovering loss
Reasoning


Deductive
Inductive
Deductive Reasoning

Use premises to reach conclusions

Syllogisms
All birds have wings
 The penguin is a bird
 Therefore, a penguin has wings

From generalizations to specific cases
Inductive reasoning

From individual cases, make general
conclusions

Science can only prove theories false. It
can’t prove them.
Intelligence

Are you smarter than a WWI private?
History of Intelligence
Francis Galton (Darwin’s cousin)



Psychophysical skills
Eugenics
James McKeen Cattell brings it to US
Alfred Binet 1904


French public schools
Mental Age
William Stern 1912

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
___Mental Age__
Chronological Age
X 100= IQ
Louis Terman 1911
Rewrote Binet/Simon test in English
 Stanford-Binet


Created scales—standard to determine highest
and lowest
David Weschler (1974)






WAIS-III Adult Intelligence Scales
WISC-III Intelligence Scale for Children
WPPSI Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
Verbal
Performance
Overall—combination of both
Aptitude vs Achievement
Aptitude—predictive



SAT changed from Scholastic “Aptitude”
Test to Scholastic “Achievement” Test
Origins
Now
3 Necessary principles

Standardized (bell curve)
All test conditions the same
 Normative scores (norms) are scaled raw
scores
 IQ—mean, median, mode=100 SD=15
 SAT—mean=500, SD=100

Old Scale for IQ
IQ Range
Classification
70-80
Borderline Deficiency
50-69
Moron
20-49
Imbecile
Below 20
Idiot
IQ Range
Classification
50-69
Mild (Educable MR)
35-49
Moderate (Trainable MR)
20-34
Severe
Below 20
Profound
Reliability
—Consistent, dependable
Test-retest
 Split-half score
 Comparison to other measure

Validity

Does it measure what it is supposed to
measure?
Content (face validity)—items on test
represent
 Predictive—Do results meet with future tasks?
 Concurrent—test compared to other criterion

Five Approaches to
Intelligence
1. Psychometric

Spearman (1927)
g-factors: general factor
 s-factors: specific factors

Psychometric (cont)

Thurstone (1938)

Primary mental abilities








Verbal comprehension
Verbal fluency
Inductive reasoning
Spatial reasoning
Spatial visualization
Number
Memory
Perceptual speed
Psychometric (cont)

Cattell and Carroll (1971)

Hierarchical model
Fluid intelligence: speed, flexibility, acquisition
 Crystallized intelligence: cumulated knowledge

2. Computational model

Process of intelligence--cognitive
Information processing speed
 Hi IQ, more time for global planning, less local
planning

3. Biological Model

Electrophysiological


Speed of neural activity correlates with IQ
Metabolic
Hi IQ has lower glucose metabolism
 With practice, lower overall but higher in
specific areas--more efficient

4. Contextual Model

Cultural differences
Kpelle tribe--sort by function, not hierarchy
 Kenyans--4 types of intelligence
 Italian immigrant study (1917)

5. Systems Model

Howard Gardner (1983)

Multiple intelligence









Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist
Brain is modular
Systems (cont)

Robert Sternberg (1985)

Triarchic model
Practical--apply, use, do
 Creative--create, invent, design
 Analytic--analyze, compare, evaluate

Heritability of Intelligence
Identical Twins Reared
Together
0.85
Identical Twins Reared Apart
0.71
Fraternal Twins reared together
0.6
Siblings reared together
0.45
Unrelated individuals reared
together
0.31
Heritability Graph