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Transcript
Comparative Cognition What is Comparative Cognition? • Comparative Cognition: understanding of the nature and evolution of cognition in human and nonhuman animals. • Cognition – Latin for “knowledge” or “thinking” – The use of mental representation of some past experience as a basis for action – Internal state connecting input to output: Sensory -- Mental Representation – Response • Animal Cognition – Title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of nonhuman animals – Infer the existence of mental representations based on the behavior of the animal – "Cognition, broadly defined, includes all ways in which animals take in information through the senses, process, retain and decide to act on it." Shettleworth (2001) page 277 – See Information Processing Model Hypothesized Memory Processes: Encoding, Consolidation, and Retrieval What is Comparative Cognition? • It is Not About Intelligence • George John Romanes (1848 –1894) Animal Intelligence (1882) – see PowerPoint 10_Instrumental slide #2 • Intelligence – the ability to comprehend; to understand and profit from experience • Animal intelligence is used in three distinct but overlapping ways – "incorrectly" as a synonym for animal cognition – to pose the question “are animals intelligent?” • which should be "are nonhuman animals intelligent?" • but usually means are they as smart as humans – to denote a discussion of relative levels of intelligence in different animal species • It really is about differences in cognitive abilities across species • nonhuman animals have specialized cognitive abilities that humans do not have Controversy over studies of comparative cognition • Arguments against cognitive approach (Wasserman 1995) – Using internal cognitive processes “mental” does not add explanation • S - Cognition - R is no better then S - R for explaining behavior – Non-human animals do not have minds • They are not conscious decision makers • Provides a clear separation between humans and other animals – If non-human animals do have minds it would be impossible to study • Minds are private and subjective • Humans can communicate verbally about what is on their minds – Clever appearing behavior can be explained by simple mechanisms • Simple associative mechanisms • Simple innate mechanisms such as reflex, M.A.P. Controversy over studies of comparative cognition • Conflating mental “mind” with consciousness • Conscious awareness is not required to process information – For non-human animals or for humans (Bargh 2003) – see PowerPoint 02_define slides # 7-9 • For example: episodic memory does not require conscious processing – what, where, when, as part of food storage in Scrub Jays – this will be covered in Chapter 12 • How much conscious intent do nonhuman animals have? – very difficult to determine and there are widely varying opinions as to the role of consciousness in cognition – Donald R. Griffin (see below) gives it an important role – Heyes thinks it should be ignored • "It is perhaps at this moment that the cognitive ethologist decides to hang up his field glasses, become a cognitive psychologist, and have nothing further to do with talk about consciousness or intention." (1987a, p. 124) Controversy over studies of comparative cognition • Darwin's influence on comparative cognition was an argument for continuity – Other species are mentally as well as physically similar to humans – Difference in the mental capacity of animals and humans as a difference of degree rather than kind – Clever animals: George Romanes’ had anecdotal examples in Animal Intelligence – Modern versions of clever animals • • • • this clever dogs or this really clever dog 0r this truly amazing dog Do you know about Clever Hans? – Anecdotal method of Romanes was lacking in objectivity and reliability – Guilty of anthropomorphism • interpreting the behaviour of other species as if they were human. • stimulated a backlash by Thorndike and Morgan which is still prevalent today Controversy over studies of comparative cognition • Recent research showing human-like abilities in other species: – There is a tendency to use anthropomorphic interpretations for • episodic memory • manufacture and use of tools • theory of mind – Contemporary research in psychology is moving toward explaining human behavior • as responses to simple cues • Innate responses or predispositions – do not need to explain all of human behavior with intuition • preference for immediacy in choice behavior • spatial cognition as “cognitive maps” Controversy over studies of comparative cognition • Using basic explanations may seem like ‘killjoy’ explanations (Shettleworth 2010) – behaviors such as communicating, using tools, solving novel problems • behaviors that seem to require human-like thought • Can be explained by associative learning and species-typical predispositions • Is this denial of mental continuity between humans and other animals? • Complexities arise out of simplicity as seen in social insects such as termite nest, honeybee hives and ant colonies. – simple, unconscious mechanisms that explain much animal behavior – When these simple mechanisms are numerous and organized they can produce complex behavior History of Studies in Comparative Cognition • Interest in animal cognition "intelligence" using learning studies was the foundation of learning psychology • Behaviorism mostly in United States – – – – Thorndike's puzzle box John B. Watson B.F. Skinner However, Behaviorism ignored natural selection’s ability to create nichespecific minds designed to solve particular intellectual challenges. – Explaining classical conditioning effects as S-R associations without cognitive processing is incomplete – Internal representation of stimuli used as CS produce expectations of a particular US. – A rat trained with tone – food is surprised by tone -- no food History of Studies in Comparative Cognition • Ethology In mainland Europe – concentrated on behavior in natural situations, tending to describe it as instinctive • Nikolaas Tinbergen • Konrad Lorenz • Karl von Frisch – animals generally respond to innate ‘sign stimuli’ with ‘fixed-action patterns’ – However, Like Behaviorists, most ethologists saw animals as mindless machines Studies in Comparative Cognition • The Behaviorist contention that animals are mindless learning machines cannot explain four important research findings. – Wolfgang Köhler in 1915–17 reported numerous examples of spontaneous problem solving by chimpanzees – Edward C. Tolman (1940's) demonstrated that rats can solve a maze problem with a ‘cognitive map’ – John Garcia (1966)discovered rapid food-avoidance conditioning – David Olton (1976) used eight-arm radial mazes create mental maps of the maze as they explore it, and can refer back to these unreinforced experiences days later. • Renewed interest in Comparative Cognition is a more recent development – Hulse (1978) Cognitive Processes in Animal Behavior an edited volume of fourteen chapters seen as the beginning of the comparative cognition resurgence Cognitive Ethology – Influenced by Donald Griffin's book "The Question of Animal Awareness" 1976 • original focus by Griffin was on consciousness – Combination of cognitive science and classical ethology • For example: many social animals engage in social play – Requires communication, role playing, cooperation and the ability to understand intentions • Dog play behavior "bow" – As a signal before play behavior “chasing” that can be misinterpreted – Emphasizes observing animals under more-or-less natural conditions • with the objective of understanding species-specific behavioral repertoire – Relies on anecdote and anthropomorphism to inform and to motivate more rigorous study – Using experimental control is a problem • placing and maintaining individuals in captivity • getting them accustomed to test situations that may be unnatural • For example, this video of smart crows and video of even smarter crows Argument for cognitive approach • Cognitive concepts such as mental representations, expectations and relationship between stimuli all help explain behavior – R - O associations • specific associations between a response and outcome (usually a food reward) • indicates that some mental representation of food item related to a particular response – Communication with Alarm calling specific for type of predator • different call for large ground predators like cats versus flying predators such as eagles – Use of deception to prevent other individuals in your group from getting your food • • • • is this just an S – R association? or does it include cognition such as intention? Difficult to design experiments that separate S - R from intention An example from "Ape Genius" video, go to minute 40 • Animals can form mental representations of abstract properties of stimuli and the relations among stimuli • The cognitive differences between humans and other species are unclear • understanding nonhuman animal cognition can help explain human cognitive development Basic Assumptions of Comparative Cognition Studies • Animals have internal “mental” representations of stimuli from their environment. – A mental representation is a system of symbols, conscious or unconscious, that are isomorphic to some aspect of the environment – used to make behavior-generating decisions that anticipate events and relations in that environment • Animals encode, store, combine and transform representational information which is used to guide behavior. • These internal representations are theoretical constructs which are inferred from behavior. • Use internal representations to explain behavior that can not be completely explained by S-R R-O or reflex mechanisms. • For example “context” as an internal representation of a place. Why study animal cognition? • To understand the role of nature and nurture in complex, cognitive behaviors • Cognition and language do not fossilize – Use same comparative method as Darwin – Did particular components of cognition evolve just for humans and thus are unique to humans • To understand how behaviours necessary for the survival and reproductive success of a species are dependent upon specific kinds of cognitive processes. • Application to health and safety issues – Using comparative cognition in health research • determining effects of exposure to neurotoxins, such as lead, methyl mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) on cognition – developmental profiles of mammals are similar to human development • operant battery test – money reinforcement operant tests of motivation – color and position discrimination • Radial Arm Maze which is covered on page 318 of the Domjan textbook