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AP Biology Exam Review Unit 1. The Chemistry of Life Section 1: Chemistry Bonds Ionic Covalent (polar, non-polar) Hydrogen Section 2: Water Properties o High specific heat o High heat of vaporization o Solid (ice) less dense than liquid (water) – ice floats (below 4C less dense) o Strong cohesion (water H bonds to itself) o High surface tension o Strong adhesion (water bonds to other polar/charged-hydrophilic) o Excellent solvent Reasons for properties: Water is polar (Within a water molecule, neg. oxygen more electronegative than positive hydrogen) Water bonds to other waters by H bonds (neg. oxygen of one water is attracted to positive H of another water) Water Properties & Cell/Organism/Community/Global Environment Climate is buffered (coastal vs. inland, global patterns) Life in lakes survive in winter (ice on top insulates water below) Cellular reactions, hydrolysis, protein folding occur with water Transpiration pull- factors affecting water movement up xylem (cohesion, adhesion, different climates like sunny, windy conditions, opened or closed stomates, water pressure in roots) Jesus lizard and water strider escape predators Section 3: Macromolecules Organic Molecules (C & H) Carbon, 4 valence electrons Monomers, dimers, polymers Dehydration synthesis builds small molecules into large by removing water Hydrolysis breaks large molecules into smaller by adding water to break bonds Functional groups (carbonyl (aldehydes, ketones), carboxyl, sulfhydryl, methyl, acetyl, phosphate, hydroxyl (alcohols), amines) Major classes of organic molecules (carbs, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids) Isomers- same molecular formula/different structures (REMEMBER: structure determines function) Carbohydrates Function: energy storage, structure ID- ring shaped, 2 Hydrogen: 1 Oxygen Structure: monosaccharides, (glucose, galactose, fructose) C6H12O6 Disaccharides, (maltose, sucrose, lactose) Polysaccharides, (animals: glycogen, chitin) (plants: starch, cellulose) Connected by glycosidic bonds Proteins Function: structure, transport, defense, enzymes, Structure: amino acids, peptide bonds, (N of amino group connects to C of carboxyl group) Primary structure (sequence of amino acid chain- determined by DNA) Secondary structure – alpha helix, beta pleated sheet, 3D shape-H bonds Tertiary structure – folded upon itself- disulfide bridges, ionic bonds, polar, nonpolar interactions- R group interactions Quaternary structure- more than 1 chain Examples: enzymes, hair, silk, antibodies, hemoglobin, transport proteins in membrane Enzymes are primary examples of Proteins Complex structure: tertiary or quaternary proteins Function: metabolic catalysts = lower activation energy review energy reaction diagram (ID, ΔG, activation energy (Ea) Lock & key model replaced by induced fit model, Doesn’t affect change in heat energy (delta G) Substrate, active site, enzyme-substrate complex, products (define, ID on diagram) Enzyme name usually ends in “ase” Substrate-specific, unchanged during reaction Factors Affecting Enzyme Function Temperature, pH, salts, [substrate], [enzyme] Every enzyme has optimal pH, temp- away from optimal causes denaturation (432) Too cold, enzymes & substrates lose kinetic energy Coenzymes (vitamins), cofactors (such as iron in hemoglobin(Hb)) Inhibitors: competitive (takes up active site), non-competitive, (takes up space away from active site, causes conformational change in enzyme, Allosteric enzyme Negative feedback - product of enzyme reaction can also be inhibitor of same reaction Lipids Function: energy storage, structure, sex hormones like testosterone Examples: triglycerides (fats, saturated, unsaturated)- 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids Phospholipids (cell membrane, hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails) Steroids – 4 interlocking rings,(cholesterol, sex hormones), in cell membrane Nucleic Acids Function: information storage , energy molecule Structure: nucleotides,- sugar, phosphate, and N base (A, T, C, G, U) Examples: DNA, RNA, ATP DNA held together by H bonds (AT , GC) remember “AT Glen Cove) Chargaff’s Rule Pyrimidine connects to Purine A-T have 2 hydrogen bonds between them G –C have 3 hydrogen bonds between them UNIT 2. THE CELL Section 1: Cell & Cell Membrane Structure & Function Compare contrast prokaryotic cells to eukaryotic by picture and by description Prokaryotes (bacteria, Domain Archaea, Domain Bacteria): naked circular DNA, free ribosomes, no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, sometimes cell wall (Domain Bacteria cell walls contain peptidoglycan) Eukaryotes (Domain Eukarya): nucleus and membrane-bound organelles Animals: lysosomes, centrioles Plants: cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole Organelles & Other Structures Key theme -Relationship of structure to function Benefits to compartmentalization of cell- maintains individual metabolic processes Nucleus (nucleolus, chromatin, nuclear lamina, nuclear pores) Ribosomes (no membrane), 2 subunits, made by nucleolus, on ER or free ER (smooth and rough), Golgi, vesicles (shipping and modification) Lysosomes (low pH, digestion) Peroxisomes (have catalase to break down H2O2) Mitochondria and chloroplasts- energy transfer, Evidence for Endosymbiotic theory! Vacuoles – storage, ie central vacuole in plants surrounded by tonoplast Cytoskeleton: movement and support- examples, centrioles, spindle fibers, o flagella, cilia, actin and myosin of muscles o Cytoskeleton fibers: microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments Cell wall (plants –cellulose, some prokaryotes- peptidoglycan, fungi-chitin) Plasmodesmata – gaps in plant cell wall – used for cell to cell communication-direct contact Cell size is limited by surface area/volume ratio- cells with largest SA/V are optimal in efficiency - Know how to calculate SA/V-use reference table for formulae Cell Membrane Structure Phospholipid bilayer: hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails, amphipathic, fluid mosaic model Proteins o Integral and transmembrane: channel, transport, electron transport chain o Peripheral: recognition, receptor, adhesion Oligosaccharides- short chains of carbs attached to protein and lipids of membranefunction in cell-cell recognition Cholesterol- wedged between phospholipid bilayer Membranes have more mobility with unsaturated fatty acid tails and less cholesterol Cell Membrane Function – Movement of Materials Selectively permeable Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion- PASSIVE TRANSPORT (hilow conc.) Active transport (low hi concentration) uses ATP Hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic, Water moves from hypo to hypertonic, to where there is more stuff dissolved, from hi to low water potential KNOW HOW TO USE WATER POTENTIAL FORMULA (refer to reference table) Animal cells exist in isotonic solutions Plant cells prefer being in hypotonic solutions Plant cells in salt water- plasmolysis Vesicular transport: exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis Osmoregulation- keeping a balance of water- paramecium use contractile vacuoles, mammals use kidney/nephrons, saltwater fish excrete concentrated urine, freshwater fish urinate a lot Ammonia- N waste in aquatic animals, very toxic Urea- less toxic, some water needed, i.e. humans Uric acid- birds and reptiles, least toxic, least water available Section 2: Cellular Respiration Overview Oxidation – reduction reaction (redox, “LEO say GER”) Converts “food” (either ingested by heterotrophs or photosynthesized by autotrophs) into energy of ATP Anaerobic (net 2ATP) vs aerobic (net 36 ATP) Lactic acid fermentation- bacteria and humans in oxygen debt Alcoholic fermentation- yeast C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H2O --> 6CO2 + 12H2O + energy ( 36 ATP) Glycolysis: all organisms, cytoplasm, most primitive o Focus on the end products, where O2 is used, where CO2 is produced, why o fermentation is less efficient o Glycolysis - Glucose > pyruvate, cytosol, yield: net 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate Oxidation of 2 pyruvate to 2 acetyl CoA – yield 2 CO2 +2 NADH Kreb’s Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) starts with 2 acetyl CoA combines with 2 OAA, yield 4 CO2, 6NAD, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (substrate level phosphorylation)with 2 spin, occurs in matrix of mitochondria o All 6CO2 (by-product, waste) – breathed out Oxidative Phosphorylation: ETC and Chemiosmosis So far- Total yield of energy and electron acceptors = 4 ATP, 10 NADH, 2 FADH2 NADH and FADH2 are oxidized- give up H- electrons go to ETC along cristae Final acceptor of e is oxygen- 12 H2O are formed - waste H+ ions from hydrogen are pumped to intermembrane compartment, H+ flow down concentration gradient through ATP synthase, phosphorylate ADP > ATP (32 more are made at end) Aerobic Yield: approximately 36 ATP Disruptions to ETC- cyanide poisoning- know short and long term effects to disruptions to ETC, to both individuals and populations/communites Section 3: Photosynthesis Light + 12H2O + 6CO2 > C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H2O Chemiosmosis, autotrophs, chloroplasts ATP and sugar production Interaction between light and dark reactions Green plants, pigments, chlorophyll Best wavelengths for photosynthesis – red and blue Least effective - green Light Reactions – cyclic and non cyclic Cyclic photophosphorylation- uses ETC, P700, only ATP made, primitive Non cyclic light reactions- ATP made by chemiosmosis, ATP synthase, H+ pump, NADPH, oxygen from photolysis (splitting of water) P700 and P680 NADPH and ATP needed for Calvin Cycle Chloroplasts, thylakoid membrane – light/stroma- dark Photosystem II (P680), photolysis, primary electron acceptor, electron transport chain, ADP > ATP (phosphorylation) Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent or “Dark” Reactions) Carbon fixation, Rubisco, CO2 + RuBP > PGA (3C) >G3P or PGAL -> glucose (6C) 6 CO2 makes 2 G3P makes 1 glucose C3 metabolism vs. C4 C4 & CAM Photosynthesis – hot dry Photorespiration, inefficiency of Rubisco in high [O2] C4 - Separate 2 steps of carbon fixation anatomically, by moving CO2 to bundle sheath layer (Kranz anatomy)- avoid photorespiration o PEP carboxylase in outer ring of mesophyll cells, 4C “storage” compounds (oxaloacetate, malate) o C4 Moves carbon by regenerating CO2 in bundle sheath cells to Rubisco & Calvin Cycle – extra reactions between light and dark o Grasses, corn, rice, sugar cane CAM plants separate 2 steps of carbon fixation temporally, at two different times /Fix carbon at night (when stomates are open), put in “storage” compound (organic acids); during the day, when o the stomates are closed, release CO2 o from “storage” compounds to Calvin Cycle o Cacti, succulents, pineapple REMEMBER PLANTS ARE AEROBIC AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC: They have mitochondria and chloroplasts Consider the short and long term effects on no photosynthesis- to individual and population/communities within food chain Section 4: Cell Cycle & Mitosis Cell Cycle -Cell spends most of its life in interphase (not dividing) Mitosis (Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Be able to ID different events in each stage Prokaryotes DON’T DO MITOSIS- only binary fission Mitosis in eukaryotes- Clones, asexual reproduction, growth, repair Chromosomes, chromatids, centromere, complementary strands Sequence: Interphase, G1, S, G2, G0 S phase – DNA replicates! G0- not in cell cycle Cytokinesis: cleavage furrow (animals), cell plate (plants) Cell division triggered by growth (surface-to-volume ratio, density dependent inhibition UNIT 3. GENETICS Section 1: Meiosis Gamete Production –sperm/egg animals pollen/ovule flowers 1stdivision of meiosis separates homologous pairs o Reduction division, diploid > haploid, 2n > 1n o S phase of Interphase (DNA replicates), prophase 1 (crossing over), metaphase1(tetrads align on metaphase plate) o anaphase 1 (tetrads split), telophase 1, cytokinesis Crossing over: tetrad, synapsis Independent assortment –creates variation –maternal/paternal chromosomes align independently on metaphase plate 2n division of meiosis separates sister chromatids (like mitosis) o Haploid > haploid, 1n > 1n No DNA replication prior to meiosis 2 (interkinesis) Prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2, telophase 2 Function : 4 Haploid gamete (sex cell, egg, sperm) production Genetic variation & recombination Sordaria lab – ascopores that don’t show crossing over (4:4) ascopores that show crossing over (2:4:2) (2:2:2:2) Section 2: Heredity Mendelian Inheritance Locus, gene, allele, homologous pairs, dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype, homozygous, heterozygous, monohybrid cross, dihybrid cross; P, F1, F2 generations, test cross Know how to use product law to do dihybrid crosses, trihybrid etc. Law of Segregation: random segregation/separation of alleles to separate gametes Law of Independent Assortment: chromosomes segregate separately from other nonhomologous chromosomes Non-Mendelian Inheritance Sex-linkage (colorblindness and hemophilia)XH, Xh, Y Determine gene linkage through test cross results (not 1:1:1:1) Mapping genes (calculate map units, put in order based on map units) Non-disjunction- failure of chromosomes to separate (Down’s Syndrome) Mutations - deletion, duplication, translocation, inversion KNOW HOW TO DO CHI SQUARE TEST WITH GENETIC EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Section 3: Molecular Genetics DNA structure- Watson, Crick, Franklin (know DNA structure inside out) Antiparallel, sugar-phosphate backbone, nitrogenous bases in rungs DNA Replication Semiconservative replication (Meselson and Stahl) Template strand, DNA polymerase, leading strand, lagging strand, Okazaki fragments, helicase, replication fork, single stranded binding proteins, DNA ligase, RNA primase, RNA primer, 3’ vs. 5’ end Mutations: deletion, substitution, insertion, frame shift Protein Synthesis (Central Dogma) Beadle and Tatum- Neurospora One-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis, one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis Transcription: mRNA, RNA polymerase, TATA box (promotor) Enhances bind to transcription factors and regulatory site upstream of DNA to speed up transcription Eukaryotes RNA processing: introns, exons, 5’cap, poly-A tail Translation: mRNA, codon, tRNA, anticodon, ribosome, small ribosomal subunit, large ribosomal subunit, P site, A site, E site, , start codon (Met), stop codons (UAA, UGA, UAG) initiation, elongation, termination – major steps in transcription and translation DNA Organization Chromatin wrapped around histone proteins, nucleosomes, genes, chromosomes Viruses Bacteriophages, capsid, envelope, lytic cycle, lysogenic cycle, HIV retroviruses, reverse transcriptase (RNA DNA) Bacteria Plasmids (circular chromosomes), conjugation (sexual reprod. In bacteria), Transduction – virus infects bacteria, Transformation- introduction of foreign DNA into bacteria (think about Griffiths/Avery expt) (think about our cloning expt. With GFP and ampR) Operons Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes Regulatory gene, repressor protein, promoter, operator, structural gene Inducible enzyme: lac operon, normally “off’, when lactose is present binds to repressor, causes repressor to disengage from the DNA, allows DNA to actively code for protein/enzyme that will break down lactose Repressible enzyme: trp operon, normally “on”, only when Tryptophan (corepressor) is present in high enough quantities, binds to repressor that in turn binds to DNA, prevents protein/enzyme product from being made (turns operon off) Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Methyl groups cause DNA to wind tightly around histones- turn off genes Acetyl groups cause DNA to loosen around histones- turn on genes siRNA- silences RNA- stops transcription Enhancers and repressors affect transcriptions factors Environment alters gene expression (rabbit grows black fur under ice pack) Epigenetics – environment can methylate genome- pass down through generations (Ghost in your Genes video) Section 4: Biotechnology Recombinant DNA , Restriction enzymes, sticky ends, ligase, plasmids (vector), transformation, antibiotic selection, GFP, calcium chloride, heat shock Gel electrophoresis, RFLPs (restriction fragment length polymorphisms), DNA migrates to positive end of box, small fragments go further down gel PCR (polymerase chain reaction)-copy specific sequences of DNA, Taq polymerase, nucleotides, primers, heat, cool to anneal primers- - billions copies in 30 cycles UNIT 4. MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION Section 1: Darwinian Evolution Evidence : Paleontology(oldest fossils on bottom layers), biogeography, comparative embryology, comparative anatomy o Homologous structures(common ancestry-divergence) vs. analogous structures(convergent evolution), o vestigial structures (appendix), molecular biology (strongest evidence DNA evidence/protein), artificial selection (dogs/ lab with “trichomes” --hairs on Brassica) Natural Selection Example- beaks of finch- adaptive radiation “Vicki Says Old Cheese Smells Icky”- know ALL POINTS of Darwin’s theory Over-production of offspring, inherited variation, competition, adaptations, fitness, reproductive success of advantageous traits Stabilizing selection (human birth weight extremes selected against - too small won’t survive, too big difficult birth), Directional selection (humans getting taller) Disruptive selective/diversifying selection (opposite of stabilizing)-select extremes, select against intermediates Sexual selection (male competition, female choice)(male birds colorful, females drab) Variation is source of evolution: mutation, sexual reproduction (crossing over, independent assortment, random fertilization), diploidy, heterozygosity, out-breeding Section 2: The Evolution of Populations & Speciation Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Conditions for genetic equilibrium (no change in gene pool/allele composition) 5 fingers of evolution Infinitely large population No natural selection No mutations No gene flow (no migration) Completely random mating Frequency of alleles: p + q = 1 Frequency of genotypes or individuals: p2+ 2pq + q2= 1 KNOW HOW TO DO HARDY-WEINBERG CALCULATIONS Causes of non-equilibrium (i.e., evolution) Genetic drift: founder effect, bottleneck Natural selection, gene flow, mutation, non-random mating, sexual selection Speciation – 2 organisms are of same species if they can reproduce and offspring are fertile 1. Adaptive radiation (ex. Galapagos) 2. Allopatric: geographic isolation 3. Sympatric: reproductive isolation Prezygotic isolation Habitat isolation Temporal isolation (timing) Behavioral isolation (courtship displays) Mechanical isolation (anatomical incompatibility) Gametic isolation Postzygotic isolation Reduced hybrid viability Reduced hybrid fertility (donkey x horse sterile mule) Hybrid breakdown Patterns of Evolution Divergent evolution, adaptive radiation (ancestor to elephant diverged to produce Asian and African species) Convergent evolution, analogous structures (bird wing vs. butterfly wing)- not related but have similar selection pressures/ ability to fly Parallel evolution (wolf/dog) Coevolution (bees and flowers) Macroevolution: gradualism (Darwin) vs. punctuated equilibrium (Gould) Origin of Life Early earth and atmosphere: low or no O2 o Contained methane, ammonia, water vapor, hydrogen Complex molecules in primordial seas, monomers, polymers Organic molecules and early cells formed Stanley Miller’s experiment (make organic from inorganic molecules, simulate early Earth conditions) Heterotrophic prokaryotes were first organisms Glycolysis first energy process Asexual, aquatic was 1st Autotrophic prokaryotes: O2 and ozone layer formed Eukaryotes formed, endosymbiotic theory Mitochondria and chloroplasts have circular DNA, free ribosomes, reproduce independently in cell, (~binary fission), double membranes UNIT 5. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Section 1: Three Domain Survey Domain Bacteria Prokaryotes: bacteria, spirochetes, cyanobacteria (autotrophs) Formerly included in Kingdom Monera Domain Archaea Extremophiles: thermophiles (Taq), halophiles, methanogens Formerly included in Kingdom Monera Domain Eukarya Protists-single celled eukaryotes Fungi: chitin cell wall, hypha body plan, heterotrophic by absorption Plants: cellulose cell wall, photosynthetic angiosperms (flowering) Chloroplasts, large central vacuole, pollen, flowers, fruit, seeds, Animals –multicellular, can be mobile, no cell wall, centrioles, no Chloroplasts UNIT 6. PLANT FORM & FUNCTION Section 1: Plant Structure & Function Plant Tissues Vascular tissues : Xylem (carries water up) Phloem (carries dissolved sugar/food down, throughout plant Cells connected through plasmodesmata- gaps in wall Plant Growth Meristem growth – mitosis occurs –bottom of root, tip of stem Plant Structures Roots have root hairs to increase surface area for water and dissolved mineral absorption Leaf (C3) waxy cuticle keeps water in, palisade (photosynthesis) Lower spongy mesophyll (gas exchange), stomates, guard cells Vascular bundle (vein), xylem, phloem Plant hormones Auxin: promotes plant growth, cell elongation; apical dominance Gibberellins: cell growth, fruit development; bigger grapes Cytokinins: promote cell growth Ethylene: promotes fruit ripening Abscisic acid (ABA): maintains seed and bud dormancy Section 3: Plant Response Phototropism -Response to light Auxin concentrates on shady side of plant, differential growth Gravitropism -Response to gravity Thigmotropism -Response to touch Photoperiodism Internal clock Response to relative lengthof daylight and darkness, circadian rhythm Phytochrome protein – act as signals Night length resets circadian-rhythm clock Long-day plants flower in longer days/shorter nights Short-day plants flower inshorter days/longer nights UNIT 7. ANIMAL FORM & FUNCTION Section 1. Animal Structure & Function Review tissues, organs, and the general functions of each system. Relate each to the problem that it solves for the organism, and how it differs in different environments (structure is related to function!). Homeostasis Digestive System Mouth -Salivary amylase (starch yes, cellulose no), physical breakdown Pharynx, epiglottis, esophagus, peristalsis Stomach Gastric juices, HCl, pepsin, mucous, protein digestion begins, o Storage, disinfection, physical & chemical breakdown Small intestine -Digestion and absorption(villi and microvilli) 1st section of small intestines =Duodenum: proteases, maltase, lactase, phosphatases Pancreas: Trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase –empty into sm. Intestines Liver, gall bladder Bile (emulsify fats) Large intestine Water absorption E. coli symbiotic bacteria Respiratory System Gill function: countercurrent exchange Lung function: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, diaphragm CO2 & O2 diffusion across moist membranes of alveoli, red blood cells O2 transported by hemoglobin (iron) CO2 transported as dissolved bicarbonate (lowers pH of blood) Excretory System N waste: ammonia, urea, uric acid Ammonia- aquatic organisms/most toxic Urea- not as toxic- some water needed- humans Uric acid- least toxic- least water-birds and mammals Nephron structure & function Glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct, ureter, bladder, urethra Filtration, secretion and reabsorption Osmoregulation: ADH (antidiuretic hormone) increases water reabsorption, aldosterone Pumping of Na+ ions out Loop Henle allows water to follow by diffusion Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS): brain, spinal cord Brain: Cerebrum controls voluntary actions, reasoning, speech, language, personality, memory, 5 senses Cerebellum control balance and posture Medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions (heartbeat, Peristalsis) Spinal Cord- center for reflex action Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): sensory & motor neurons Somatic: skeletal muscle voluntary action Autonomic – controls involuntary action Sympathetic: stimulates activities Parasympathetic: calming/slowing down effect Reflex arc : receptorsensory neuroninterneuronmotor neuroneffector (muscle or gland) Neuron Structure & Function Cell body, dendrites, axon, synapse, Myelin sheath, Schwann cells Polarized resting potential, action potential, depolarization, repolarization, Na-K pumps – reestablishes resting potential Synapse: Ca2+ gates, neurotransmitters, ion-gated channels, synapse Examples of neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, melatonin Muscle System Example of cytoskeletal elements Types of muscle: Skeletal, smooth, cardiac Muscle Structure & Function –actin and myosin Sliding-filament model – use of ATP Immune System Non-specific barriers: Skin, anti-microbial proteins, gastric juices, symbiotic bacteria (1st line of defense) Non-specific patrol (2nd line) Phagocytes, complement proteins, inflammatory response (histamine, vasodilation, phagocytes) Specific immunity (3rd line of defense)Lymphocytes, antigens, MHC (major histocompatibility complex), Self vs. non-self B cells -Antibodies (immunoglobins), plasma cells, memory cells, Humoral response, attack circulating invaders, bone marrow T cells – made in thymus, Cytotoxic T cells (killer T cells), helper T cells Cell-mediated response, attack infected or cancer cells Antibiotics work on bacteria, vaccines work on viruses Endocrine System (Homeostasis ) Negative feedback – keeps level at target point Positive feedback – amplifies response (ie oxytocin /labor contractions) Hypothalamus, posterior pituitary (storage of ADH, oxytocin), anterior pituitary (release of TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH) Ductless glands Most important: Pancreas: insulin lowers blood sugar, glucagon raises blood sugar Also, Adrenal: epinephrine, (adrenaline)- fight or flight hormone Gonads: ovaries (estrogen, progesterone), testes (testosterone) –steroid-lipid soluble- go right through cells Other hormones are proteins- need receptors to enter cells Protein hormones: second messengers necessary (cyclic AMP) Cell Communication Hormones-long distance communication Neurotransmitters- short distance (over synapse) Direct communication – plasmodesmata in plant cells, oligosaccharides in animal cells Quorum sensing- Bonnie Bassler- bacteria and squid, autoinducers, bacteria take a count of each other and release pathogenicity- new antibiotic =anti-autoinducers Signal Transduction Pathway- (signal-ligand, transduction, response) Tyrosine kinase, G-receptor proteins Many signal pathway responses lead to production of transcription factors which allow genes “turn on” Section 2: Animal Reproduction & Development Anatomy Female: Ovary, oviduct (fallopian tube), uterus, vagina, egg, corpus luteum Oogenesis – meiosis, 1 haploid egg survives, 3 polar bodies disintegrate Male -Testes (sperm production), epididymis(sperm maturation), vas deferens (sperm delivery), seminal vesicles (secretions), prostate gland(secretions), penis, sperm Spermatogenesis – male meiosis – 4 equal sized haploid sperm Regulation 28 day cycle Female hormones: GnRH (hypothalamus), FSH (pituitary), estrogen (ovary), LH (pituitary), progesterone (corpus luteum) Ovulation – release of egg day 14- caused by LH Menstruation day 28- drop in progesterone Development Fertilization, cleavage, morula, blastula, gastrula, gastrulation, differentiation, Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm, Section 3: Animal Behavior Types of Animal Behavior Instinct, FAP (sign stimulus), imprinting (critical period), learning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning (trial and error),habituation Movement: kinesis (undirected change in speed Taxis (directional movement), Migration Foraging: herds, flocks, schools, and packs Social: agonistic, dominance/hierarchy, territoriality, altruistic (kin selection), cooperation, colonial Communication -Chemical (pheromones), visual (displays), auditory, tactile UNIT 8. ECOLOGY Section 1: Population Ecology Population Growth & Distribution Size, density, dispersal (clumped, uniform, random), age structure, survivorship curves, reproductive tables Limiting factors: density-dependent vs. density-independent Growth: exponential, logistic, carrying capacity (K), r-selected, K-selected, Predator/prey population cycles Section 2: Community Ecology Population Interactions Interspecific competition: (-, -), niche (competitive exclusion), resource partitioning, keystone species, and dominant species Predation: (+, -), predator, parasite, and herbivore Symbiosis: mutualism (+, +), commensalism (+, 0), parasitism (+, -) Coevolution: predator-prey adaptations, cryptic coloration, warning coloration, mimicry, Batesian mimicry (fooling)vs. Mullerian mimicry (warning), Succession -Primary succession, pioneer species, secondary succession Section 3: Ecosystems Biomes: know typical climate, producers, animals Tropical rain forest, savanna, temperate grassland, temperate deciduous forest, desert, taiga (boreal forest), tundra, freshwater, marine Trophic Levels: Primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, decomposers, food chain, food web, ecological pyramids (energy, biomass, numbers), 10% transfer of energy, energy flow, nutrient cycling, eutrophication Primary productivity: Net vs. Gross (effect of photosynthesis on productivity vs effect of respiration) Nutrient Cycles -Carbon, water, nitrogen, phosphorus Human Impacts Global climate change, excess global gases, CO2, greenhouse effect Ozone depletion (CFCs) Acid rain Deforestation, loss of habitat, Loss of biodiversity- Factors impacting biodiversity Biomagnification- top of food chain has most toxin- DDT effect Introduced species – invasive species Over-exploitation Desertification REVIEW LABS OF THE YEAR: SEE WEBSITE: http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/ REVIEW ALL MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS SEE ATTACHED REFERENCE TABLE FOR EQUATIONS AND FORMULAS