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AP Biology Exam Review
Unit 1. The Chemistry of Life
Section 1: Chemistry
 Bonds
 Ionic
 Covalent (polar, non-polar)
 Hydrogen
Section 2: Water
 Properties
o High specific heat
o High heat of vaporization
o Solid (ice) less dense than liquid (water) – ice floats (below 4C less dense)
o Strong cohesion (water H bonds to itself)
o High surface tension
o Strong adhesion (water bonds to other polar/charged-hydrophilic)
o Excellent solvent
 Reasons for properties: Water is polar (Within a water molecule, neg. oxygen more
electronegative than positive hydrogen)
 Water bonds to other waters by H bonds (neg. oxygen of one water is attracted to positive
H of another water)
Water Properties & Cell/Organism/Community/Global Environment
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Climate is buffered (coastal vs. inland, global patterns)
Life in lakes survive in winter (ice on top insulates water below)
Cellular reactions, hydrolysis, protein folding occur with water
Transpiration pull- factors affecting water movement up xylem
(cohesion, adhesion, different climates like sunny, windy conditions, opened or closed
stomates, water pressure in roots)
Jesus lizard and water strider escape predators
Section 3: Macromolecules
 Organic Molecules (C & H)
 Carbon, 4 valence electrons
 Monomers, dimers, polymers
 Dehydration synthesis builds small molecules into large by removing water
 Hydrolysis breaks large molecules into smaller by adding water to break bonds
 Functional groups (carbonyl (aldehydes, ketones), carboxyl, sulfhydryl, methyl, acetyl,
phosphate, hydroxyl (alcohols), amines)
 Major classes of organic molecules (carbs, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids)
 Isomers- same molecular formula/different structures (REMEMBER: structure determines
function)
Carbohydrates
 Function: energy storage, structure
 ID- ring shaped, 2 Hydrogen: 1 Oxygen
Structure: monosaccharides, (glucose, galactose, fructose) C6H12O6
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 Disaccharides, (maltose, sucrose, lactose)
 Polysaccharides, (animals: glycogen, chitin) (plants: starch, cellulose)
 Connected by glycosidic bonds
Proteins
 Function: structure, transport, defense, enzymes,
 Structure: amino acids, peptide bonds, (N of amino group connects to C of carboxyl group)
 Primary structure (sequence of amino acid chain- determined by DNA)
 Secondary structure – alpha helix, beta pleated sheet, 3D shape-H bonds
 Tertiary structure – folded upon itself- disulfide bridges, ionic bonds, polar, nonpolar
interactions- R group interactions
 Quaternary structure- more than 1 chain
 Examples: enzymes, hair, silk, antibodies, hemoglobin, transport proteins in membrane
Enzymes are primary examples of Proteins
 Complex structure: tertiary or quaternary proteins
 Function: metabolic catalysts = lower activation energy
 review energy reaction diagram (ID, ΔG, activation energy
(Ea)
 Lock & key model replaced by induced fit model,
 Doesn’t affect change in heat energy (delta G)
 Substrate, active site, enzyme-substrate complex,
products (define, ID on diagram)
 Enzyme name usually ends in “ase”
 Substrate-specific, unchanged during reaction
Factors Affecting Enzyme Function
 Temperature, pH, salts, [substrate], [enzyme]
 Every enzyme has optimal pH, temp- away from optimal causes denaturation (432)
 Too cold, enzymes & substrates lose kinetic energy
 Coenzymes (vitamins), cofactors (such as iron in hemoglobin(Hb))
 Inhibitors: competitive (takes up active site), non-competitive, (takes up space away from
active site, causes conformational change in enzyme, Allosteric enzyme
 Negative feedback - product of enzyme reaction can also be inhibitor of same reaction
Lipids
 Function: energy storage, structure, sex hormones like testosterone
 Examples: triglycerides (fats, saturated, unsaturated)- 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
 Phospholipids (cell membrane, hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails)
 Steroids – 4 interlocking rings,(cholesterol, sex hormones), in cell membrane
Nucleic Acids
 Function: information storage , energy molecule
 Structure: nucleotides,- sugar, phosphate, and N base (A, T, C, G, U)
 Examples: DNA, RNA, ATP
 DNA held together by H bonds (AT , GC) remember “AT Glen Cove) Chargaff’s
Rule
 Pyrimidine connects to Purine
 A-T have 2 hydrogen bonds between them
 G –C have 3 hydrogen bonds between them
UNIT 2. THE CELL
Section 1: Cell & Cell Membrane Structure & Function
 Compare contrast prokaryotic cells to eukaryotic by picture and by description
 Prokaryotes (bacteria, Domain Archaea, Domain Bacteria): naked circular DNA, free
ribosomes, no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, sometimes cell wall
 (Domain Bacteria cell walls contain peptidoglycan)
 Eukaryotes (Domain Eukarya): nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
 Animals: lysosomes, centrioles
 Plants: cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole
Organelles & Other Structures
 Key theme -Relationship of structure to function
 Benefits to compartmentalization of cell- maintains individual metabolic processes
 Nucleus (nucleolus, chromatin, nuclear lamina, nuclear pores)
 Ribosomes (no membrane), 2 subunits, made by nucleolus, on ER or free
 ER (smooth and rough), Golgi, vesicles (shipping and modification)
 Lysosomes (low pH, digestion)
Peroxisomes (have catalase to break down H2O2)
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 Mitochondria and chloroplasts- energy transfer,
 Evidence for Endosymbiotic theory!
 Vacuoles – storage, ie central vacuole in plants surrounded by tonoplast
 Cytoskeleton: movement and support- examples, centrioles, spindle fibers,
o flagella, cilia, actin and myosin of muscles
o Cytoskeleton fibers: microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments
 Cell wall (plants –cellulose, some prokaryotes- peptidoglycan, fungi-chitin)
 Plasmodesmata – gaps in plant cell wall – used for cell to cell communication-direct contact
 Cell size is limited by surface area/volume ratio- cells with largest SA/V are optimal in
efficiency - Know how to calculate SA/V-use reference table for formulae
Cell Membrane Structure
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Phospholipid bilayer: hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails, amphipathic, fluid mosaic
model
Proteins
o Integral and transmembrane: channel, transport, electron transport chain
o Peripheral: recognition, receptor, adhesion
Oligosaccharides- short chains of carbs attached to protein and lipids of membranefunction in cell-cell recognition
Cholesterol- wedged between phospholipid bilayer
Membranes have more mobility with unsaturated fatty acid tails and less cholesterol
Cell Membrane Function – Movement of Materials
 Selectively permeable
 Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion- PASSIVE TRANSPORT (hilow conc.)
 Active transport (low hi concentration) uses ATP
 Hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic,
 Water moves from hypo to hypertonic, to where there is more stuff dissolved, from hi to
low water potential
 KNOW HOW TO USE WATER POTENTIAL FORMULA (refer to reference table)
 Animal cells exist in isotonic solutions
 Plant cells prefer being in hypotonic solutions
 Plant cells in salt water- plasmolysis
 Vesicular transport: exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis
 Osmoregulation- keeping a balance of water- paramecium use contractile vacuoles,
mammals use kidney/nephrons, saltwater fish excrete concentrated urine, freshwater fish
urinate a lot
 Ammonia- N waste in aquatic animals, very toxic
 Urea- less toxic, some water needed, i.e. humans
 Uric acid- birds and reptiles, least toxic, least water available
Section 2: Cellular Respiration
Overview
 Oxidation – reduction reaction (redox, “LEO say GER”)
 Converts “food” (either ingested by heterotrophs or photosynthesized by
 autotrophs) into energy of ATP
 Anaerobic (net 2ATP) vs aerobic (net 36 ATP)
 Lactic acid fermentation- bacteria and humans in oxygen debt
 Alcoholic fermentation- yeast
 C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H2O --> 6CO2 + 12H2O + energy ( 36 ATP)
 Glycolysis: all organisms, cytoplasm, most primitive
o Focus on the end products, where O2 is used, where CO2 is produced, why
o fermentation is less efficient
o Glycolysis - Glucose > pyruvate, cytosol, yield: net 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate
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Oxidation of 2 pyruvate to 2 acetyl CoA – yield 2 CO2 +2 NADH
Kreb’s Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) starts with 2 acetyl CoA combines with 2 OAA, yield 4 CO2,
6NAD, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (substrate level phosphorylation)with 2 spin, occurs in matrix of
mitochondria
o All 6CO2 (by-product, waste) – breathed out
Oxidative Phosphorylation: ETC and Chemiosmosis
So far- Total yield of energy and electron acceptors = 4 ATP, 10 NADH, 2 FADH2
NADH and FADH2 are oxidized- give up H- electrons go to ETC along cristae
Final acceptor of e is oxygen- 12 H2O are formed - waste
H+ ions from hydrogen are pumped to intermembrane compartment, H+ flow down
concentration gradient through ATP synthase, phosphorylate ADP >
ATP (32 more are made at end)
Aerobic Yield: approximately 36 ATP
Disruptions to ETC- cyanide poisoning- know short and long term effects to disruptions to
ETC, to both individuals and populations/communites
Section 3: Photosynthesis
 Light + 12H2O + 6CO2 > C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H2O
 Chemiosmosis, autotrophs, chloroplasts
 ATP and sugar production
 Interaction between light and dark reactions
 Green plants, pigments, chlorophyll
 Best wavelengths for photosynthesis – red and blue
 Least effective - green
 Light Reactions – cyclic and non cyclic
 Cyclic photophosphorylation- uses ETC, P700, only ATP made, primitive
 Non cyclic light reactions- ATP made by chemiosmosis, ATP synthase, H+ pump, NADPH,
oxygen from photolysis (splitting of water) P700 and P680
 NADPH and ATP needed for Calvin Cycle
 Chloroplasts, thylakoid membrane – light/stroma- dark
 Photosystem II (P680), photolysis, primary electron acceptor, electron transport chain,
ADP > ATP (phosphorylation)
 Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent or “Dark” Reactions) 
 Carbon fixation, Rubisco, CO2 + RuBP > PGA (3C) >G3P or PGAL -> glucose (6C)
 6 CO2 makes 2 G3P makes 1 glucose
 C3 metabolism vs. C4
 C4 & CAM Photosynthesis – hot dry
 Photorespiration, inefficiency of Rubisco in high [O2]
 C4 - Separate 2 steps of carbon fixation anatomically, by moving CO2 to bundle sheath layer
(Kranz anatomy)- avoid photorespiration
o PEP carboxylase in outer ring of mesophyll cells, 4C “storage” compounds
(oxaloacetate, malate)
o C4 Moves carbon by regenerating CO2 in bundle sheath cells to Rubisco & Calvin
Cycle – extra reactions between light and dark
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o Grasses, corn, rice, sugar cane
CAM plants separate 2 steps of carbon fixation temporally, at two different times /Fix
carbon at night (when stomates are open), put in “storage” compound (organic acids);
during the day, when
o the stomates are closed, release CO2
o from “storage” compounds to Calvin Cycle
o Cacti, succulents, pineapple
REMEMBER PLANTS ARE AEROBIC AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC: They have mitochondria and
chloroplasts
Consider the short and long term effects on no photosynthesis- to individual and
population/communities within food chain
Section 4: Cell Cycle & Mitosis
 Cell Cycle -Cell spends most of its life in interphase (not dividing)
 Mitosis (Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
 Be able to ID different events in each stage
 Prokaryotes DON’T DO MITOSIS- only binary fission
 Mitosis in eukaryotes- Clones, asexual reproduction, growth, repair
 Chromosomes, chromatids, centromere, complementary strands
 Sequence: Interphase, G1, S, G2, G0
 S phase – DNA replicates!
 G0- not in cell cycle
 Cytokinesis: cleavage furrow (animals), cell plate (plants)
 Cell division triggered by growth (surface-to-volume ratio, density dependent
inhibition
UNIT 3. GENETICS
Section 1: Meiosis
 Gamete Production –sperm/egg animals pollen/ovule flowers
 1stdivision of meiosis separates homologous pairs
o Reduction division, diploid > haploid, 2n > 1n
o S phase of Interphase (DNA replicates), prophase 1 (crossing over),
metaphase1(tetrads align on metaphase plate)
o anaphase 1 (tetrads split), telophase 1, cytokinesis
 Crossing over: tetrad, synapsis
 Independent assortment –creates variation –maternal/paternal chromosomes align
independently on metaphase plate
 2n division of meiosis separates sister chromatids (like mitosis)
o Haploid > haploid, 1n > 1n
 No DNA replication prior to meiosis 2 (interkinesis)
 Prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2, telophase 2
 Function : 4 Haploid gamete (sex cell, egg, sperm) production
 Genetic variation & recombination
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Sordaria lab – ascopores that don’t show crossing over (4:4)
ascopores that show crossing over (2:4:2) (2:2:2:2)
Section 2: Heredity
 Mendelian Inheritance
 Locus, gene, allele, homologous pairs, dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype,
homozygous, heterozygous, monohybrid cross, dihybrid cross; P, F1, F2 generations, test
cross
 Know how to use product law to do dihybrid crosses, trihybrid etc.
 Law of Segregation: random segregation/separation of alleles to separate gametes
 Law of Independent Assortment: chromosomes segregate separately from other nonhomologous chromosomes
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
 Sex-linkage (colorblindness and hemophilia)XH, Xh, Y
 Determine gene linkage through test cross results (not 1:1:1:1)
 Mapping genes (calculate map units, put in order based on map units)
 Non-disjunction- failure of chromosomes to separate (Down’s Syndrome)
 Mutations - deletion, duplication, translocation, inversion
 KNOW HOW TO DO CHI SQUARE TEST WITH GENETIC EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Section 3: Molecular Genetics
 DNA structure- Watson, Crick, Franklin (know DNA structure inside out)
 Antiparallel, sugar-phosphate backbone, nitrogenous bases in rungs
 DNA Replication
 Semiconservative replication (Meselson and Stahl)
 Template strand, DNA polymerase, leading strand, lagging strand, Okazaki fragments,
helicase, replication fork, single stranded binding proteins, DNA ligase, RNA primase, RNA
primer, 3’ vs. 5’ end
 Mutations: deletion, substitution, insertion, frame shift
Protein Synthesis (Central Dogma)
 Beadle and Tatum- Neurospora
 One-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis, one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis
 Transcription: mRNA, RNA polymerase, TATA box (promotor)
 Enhances bind to transcription factors and regulatory site upstream of DNA to speed up
transcription
 Eukaryotes RNA processing: introns, exons, 5’cap, poly-A tail
 Translation: mRNA, codon, tRNA, anticodon, ribosome, small ribosomal subunit, large
ribosomal subunit, P site, A site, E site, , start codon (Met),
 stop codons (UAA, UGA, UAG)
 initiation, elongation, termination – major steps in transcription and translation
DNA Organization
Chromatin wrapped around histone proteins, nucleosomes, genes, chromosomes
Viruses
 Bacteriophages, capsid, envelope, lytic cycle, lysogenic cycle,
 HIV retroviruses, reverse transcriptase (RNA DNA)
Bacteria
 Plasmids (circular chromosomes), conjugation (sexual reprod. In bacteria), Transduction –
virus infects bacteria,
 Transformation- introduction of foreign DNA into bacteria (think about Griffiths/Avery
expt) (think about our cloning expt. With GFP and ampR)
Operons
 Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes
 Regulatory gene, repressor protein, promoter, operator, structural gene
 Inducible enzyme: lac operon, normally “off’, when lactose is present binds to
repressor, causes repressor to disengage from the DNA, allows DNA to actively
code for protein/enzyme that will break down lactose
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Repressible enzyme: trp operon, normally “on”, only when Tryptophan (corepressor) is
present in high enough quantities, binds to repressor that in turn binds to DNA, prevents
protein/enzyme product from being made (turns operon off)
Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
 Methyl groups cause DNA to wind tightly around histones- turn off genes
 Acetyl groups cause DNA to loosen around histones- turn on genes
 siRNA- silences RNA- stops transcription
 Enhancers and repressors affect transcriptions factors
 Environment alters gene expression (rabbit grows black fur under ice pack)
 Epigenetics – environment can methylate genome- pass down through generations (Ghost
in your Genes video)
Section 4: Biotechnology
Recombinant DNA , Restriction enzymes, sticky ends, ligase, plasmids (vector), transformation,
antibiotic selection, GFP, calcium chloride, heat shock
Gel electrophoresis, RFLPs (restriction fragment length polymorphisms),
DNA migrates to positive end of box, small fragments go further down gel
PCR (polymerase chain reaction)-copy specific sequences of DNA, Taq polymerase, nucleotides,
primers, heat, cool to anneal primers- - billions copies in 30 cycles
UNIT 4. MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
Section 1: Darwinian Evolution
 Evidence : Paleontology(oldest fossils on bottom layers), biogeography, comparative
embryology,
 comparative anatomy
o Homologous structures(common ancestry-divergence) vs. analogous
structures(convergent evolution),
o vestigial structures (appendix),
 molecular biology (strongest evidence DNA evidence/protein),
 artificial selection (dogs/ lab with “trichomes” --hairs on Brassica)
Natural Selection
 Example- beaks of finch- adaptive radiation
 “Vicki Says Old Cheese Smells Icky”- know ALL POINTS of Darwin’s theory
 Over-production of offspring, inherited variation, competition, adaptations,
 fitness, reproductive success of advantageous traits
 Stabilizing selection (human birth weight extremes selected against - too small won’t
survive, too big difficult birth),
 Directional selection (humans getting taller)
 Disruptive selective/diversifying selection (opposite of stabilizing)-select extremes, select
against intermediates
 Sexual selection (male competition, female choice)(male birds colorful, females drab)
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Variation is source of evolution: mutation, sexual reproduction (crossing over, independent
assortment, random fertilization), diploidy, heterozygosity, out-breeding
Section 2: The Evolution of Populations & Speciation
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
 Conditions for genetic equilibrium (no change in gene pool/allele composition) 5 fingers of
evolution
 Infinitely large population
 No natural selection
 No mutations
 No gene flow (no migration)
 Completely random mating
 Frequency of alleles: p + q = 1
 Frequency of genotypes or individuals: p2+ 2pq + q2= 1
 KNOW HOW TO DO HARDY-WEINBERG CALCULATIONS
 Causes of non-equilibrium (i.e., evolution)
 Genetic drift: founder effect, bottleneck
 Natural selection, gene flow, mutation, non-random mating, sexual selection
Speciation – 2 organisms are of same species if they can reproduce and offspring are fertile
1. Adaptive radiation (ex. Galapagos)
2. Allopatric: geographic isolation
3. Sympatric: reproductive isolation
Prezygotic isolation
Habitat isolation
Temporal isolation (timing)
Behavioral isolation (courtship displays)
Mechanical isolation (anatomical incompatibility)
Gametic isolation
Postzygotic isolation
Reduced hybrid viability
Reduced hybrid fertility (donkey x horse sterile mule)
Hybrid breakdown
Patterns of Evolution
Divergent evolution, adaptive radiation (ancestor to elephant diverged to produce Asian and
African species)
Convergent evolution, analogous structures (bird wing vs. butterfly wing)- not related but have
similar selection pressures/ ability to fly
Parallel evolution (wolf/dog)
Coevolution (bees and flowers)
Macroevolution: gradualism (Darwin) vs. punctuated equilibrium (Gould)
Origin of Life
 Early earth and atmosphere: low or no O2
o Contained methane, ammonia, water vapor, hydrogen
 Complex molecules in primordial seas, monomers, polymers
 Organic molecules and early cells formed
 Stanley Miller’s experiment (make organic from inorganic molecules, simulate early Earth
conditions)
 Heterotrophic prokaryotes were first organisms
 Glycolysis first energy process
 Asexual, aquatic was 1st
 Autotrophic prokaryotes: O2 and ozone layer formed
 Eukaryotes formed, endosymbiotic theory
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have circular DNA, free ribosomes, reproduce
independently in cell, (~binary fission), double membranes
UNIT 5. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Section 1: Three Domain Survey
Domain Bacteria
Prokaryotes: bacteria, spirochetes, cyanobacteria (autotrophs)
Formerly included in Kingdom Monera
Domain Archaea
Extremophiles: thermophiles (Taq), halophiles, methanogens
Formerly included in Kingdom Monera
Domain Eukarya
Protists-single celled eukaryotes
Fungi: chitin cell wall, hypha body plan, heterotrophic by absorption
Plants: cellulose cell wall, photosynthetic angiosperms (flowering)
Chloroplasts, large central vacuole, pollen, flowers, fruit, seeds,
Animals –multicellular, can be mobile, no cell wall, centrioles, no
Chloroplasts
UNIT 6. PLANT FORM & FUNCTION
Section 1: Plant Structure & Function
Plant Tissues
Vascular tissues : Xylem (carries water up)
Phloem (carries dissolved sugar/food down, throughout plant
Cells connected through plasmodesmata- gaps in wall
Plant Growth
Meristem growth – mitosis occurs –bottom of root, tip of stem
Plant Structures
Roots have root hairs to increase surface area for water and dissolved
mineral absorption
Leaf (C3) waxy cuticle keeps water in, palisade (photosynthesis)
Lower spongy mesophyll (gas exchange), stomates, guard cells
Vascular bundle (vein), xylem, phloem
Plant hormones
Auxin: promotes plant growth, cell elongation; apical dominance
Gibberellins: cell growth, fruit development; bigger grapes
Cytokinins: promote cell growth
Ethylene: promotes fruit ripening
Abscisic acid (ABA): maintains seed and bud dormancy
Section 3: Plant Response
 Phototropism -Response to light
 Auxin concentrates on shady side
 of plant, differential growth
 Gravitropism -Response to gravity
 Thigmotropism -Response to touch
Photoperiodism
 Internal clock
 Response to relative lengthof daylight and darkness, circadian rhythm
 Phytochrome protein – act as signals
 Night length resets circadian-rhythm clock
 Long-day plants flower in longer days/shorter nights
 Short-day plants flower inshorter days/longer nights
UNIT 7. ANIMAL FORM & FUNCTION
Section 1. Animal Structure & Function
Review tissues, organs, and the general functions of each system. Relate each to the problem that
it solves for the organism, and how it differs in different environments (structure is related to
function!). Homeostasis
Digestive System
 Mouth -Salivary amylase (starch yes, cellulose no), physical breakdown
 Pharynx, epiglottis, esophagus, peristalsis
 Stomach Gastric juices, HCl, pepsin, mucous, protein digestion begins,
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o Storage, disinfection, physical & chemical breakdown
Small intestine -Digestion and absorption(villi and microvilli)
1st section of small intestines =Duodenum: proteases, maltase, lactase, phosphatases
Pancreas: Trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase –empty into sm. Intestines
Liver, gall bladder Bile (emulsify fats)
Large intestine Water absorption E. coli symbiotic bacteria
Respiratory System
 Gill function: countercurrent exchange
 Lung function: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli,
 diaphragm
 CO2 & O2 diffusion across moist membranes of alveoli, red blood cells
 O2 transported by hemoglobin (iron)
 CO2 transported as dissolved bicarbonate (lowers pH of blood)
Excretory System
N waste: ammonia, urea, uric acid
Ammonia- aquatic organisms/most toxic
Urea- not as toxic- some water needed- humans
Uric acid- least toxic- least water-birds and mammals
Nephron structure & function
Glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct,
ureter, bladder, urethra
Filtration, secretion and reabsorption
Osmoregulation: ADH (antidiuretic hormone) increases water reabsorption, aldosterone
Pumping of Na+ ions out Loop Henle allows water to follow by diffusion
Nervous System
 Central Nervous System (CNS): brain, spinal cord
 Brain:
Cerebrum controls voluntary actions, reasoning, speech, language, personality, memory, 5
senses
Cerebellum control balance and posture
Medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions (heartbeat,
Peristalsis)
Spinal Cord- center for reflex action
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): sensory & motor neurons
 Somatic: skeletal muscle voluntary action
 Autonomic – controls involuntary action
 Sympathetic: stimulates activities
 Parasympathetic: calming/slowing down effect
 Reflex arc : receptorsensory neuroninterneuronmotor neuroneffector (muscle or
gland)
Neuron Structure & Function
 Cell body, dendrites, axon, synapse,
 Myelin sheath, Schwann cells
 Polarized resting potential, action potential, depolarization, repolarization,
 Na-K pumps – reestablishes resting potential
 Synapse: Ca2+ gates, neurotransmitters, ion-gated channels, synapse
 Examples of neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin,
melatonin
Muscle System
 Example of cytoskeletal elements
 Types of muscle: Skeletal, smooth, cardiac
 Muscle Structure & Function –actin and myosin
 Sliding-filament model – use of ATP
Immune System
Non-specific barriers: Skin, anti-microbial proteins, gastric juices, symbiotic bacteria (1st line of
defense)
Non-specific patrol (2nd line) Phagocytes, complement proteins, inflammatory response (histamine,
vasodilation, phagocytes)
Specific immunity (3rd line of defense)Lymphocytes, antigens, MHC (major
histocompatibility complex),
Self vs. non-self
B cells -Antibodies (immunoglobins), plasma cells, memory cells, Humoral response,
attack circulating invaders, bone marrow
T cells – made in thymus, Cytotoxic T cells (killer T cells), helper T cells
Cell-mediated response, attack infected or cancer cells
Antibiotics work on bacteria, vaccines work on viruses
Endocrine System (Homeostasis )
 Negative feedback – keeps level at target point
 Positive feedback – amplifies response (ie oxytocin /labor contractions)
 Hypothalamus, posterior pituitary (storage of ADH, oxytocin), anterior pituitary (release of
TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH)
 Ductless glands
 Most important: Pancreas: insulin lowers blood sugar, glucagon raises blood sugar
 Also, Adrenal: epinephrine, (adrenaline)- fight or flight hormone
 Gonads: ovaries (estrogen, progesterone), testes (testosterone) –steroid-lipid soluble- go
right through cells
 Other hormones are proteins- need receptors to enter cells
 Protein hormones: second messengers necessary (cyclic AMP)
Cell Communication
 Hormones-long distance communication
 Neurotransmitters- short distance (over synapse)
 Direct communication – plasmodesmata in plant cells, oligosaccharides in animal cells
 Quorum sensing- Bonnie Bassler- bacteria and squid, autoinducers, bacteria take a count of
each other and release pathogenicity- new antibiotic =anti-autoinducers
 Signal Transduction Pathway- (signal-ligand, transduction, response)
 Tyrosine kinase, G-receptor proteins

Many signal pathway responses lead to production of transcription factors which allow
genes “turn on”
Section 2: Animal Reproduction & Development
 Anatomy
 Female: Ovary, oviduct (fallopian tube), uterus, vagina, egg, corpus luteum
 Oogenesis – meiosis, 1 haploid egg survives, 3 polar bodies disintegrate
 Male -Testes (sperm production), epididymis(sperm maturation), vas deferens (sperm
delivery), seminal vesicles (secretions), prostate gland(secretions), penis, sperm
 Spermatogenesis – male meiosis – 4 equal sized haploid sperm
Regulation
 28 day cycle
 Female hormones: GnRH (hypothalamus),
 FSH (pituitary), estrogen (ovary), LH
 (pituitary), progesterone (corpus luteum)
 Ovulation – release of egg day 14- caused by LH
 Menstruation day 28- drop in progesterone
Development
Fertilization, cleavage, morula, blastula, gastrula,
gastrulation, differentiation,
Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm,
Section 3: Animal Behavior
 Types of Animal Behavior
 Instinct, FAP (sign stimulus), imprinting (critical period),
 learning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning (trial and error),habituation
 Movement: kinesis (undirected change in speed
 Taxis (directional movement),
 Migration
 Foraging: herds, flocks, schools, and packs
 Social: agonistic, dominance/hierarchy, territoriality, altruistic (kin selection), cooperation,
colonial
 Communication -Chemical (pheromones), visual (displays), auditory, tactile
UNIT 8. ECOLOGY
Section 1: Population Ecology
 Population Growth & Distribution
 Size, density, dispersal (clumped, uniform, random), age structure, survivorship curves,
reproductive tables
 Limiting factors: density-dependent vs. density-independent
 Growth: exponential, logistic, carrying capacity (K), r-selected, K-selected,
 Predator/prey population cycles
Section 2: Community Ecology
 Population Interactions
 Interspecific competition: (-, -), niche (competitive exclusion), resource partitioning,
keystone species, and dominant species
 Predation: (+, -), predator, parasite, and herbivore
 Symbiosis: mutualism (+, +), commensalism (+, 0), parasitism (+, -)
 Coevolution: predator-prey adaptations, cryptic coloration, warning coloration, mimicry,
Batesian mimicry (fooling)vs. Mullerian mimicry (warning),

Succession -Primary succession, pioneer species, secondary succession
Section 3: Ecosystems
 Biomes: know typical climate, producers, animals
 Tropical rain forest, savanna, temperate grassland, temperate deciduous forest, desert,
taiga (boreal forest), tundra, freshwater, marine
 Trophic Levels:
 Primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers,
decomposers, food chain, food web, ecological pyramids (energy, biomass, numbers), 10%
transfer of energy, energy flow, nutrient cycling, eutrophication
 Primary productivity: Net vs. Gross (effect of photosynthesis on productivity vs effect of
respiration)
 Nutrient Cycles -Carbon, water, nitrogen, phosphorus
Human Impacts
Global climate change, excess global gases, CO2, greenhouse effect
Ozone depletion (CFCs)
Acid rain
Deforestation, loss of habitat,
Loss of biodiversity- Factors impacting biodiversity
Biomagnification- top of food chain has most toxin- DDT effect
Introduced species – invasive species
Over-exploitation
Desertification
REVIEW LABS OF THE YEAR:
SEE WEBSITE:
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/
REVIEW ALL MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS
SEE ATTACHED REFERENCE TABLE FOR EQUATIONS AND FORMULAS