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EST 404
THE LIVING WORLD
CHAPTER 11 NOTES
CHAPTER 11
Genetics
(pp. 349-373)
1 Factors responsible for character traits among living organisms
A _____________________ _____________ is a physical, _________________ or physiological
attribute that may vary from one _______________ to another within the same species.
Examples:
 Eye colour
 ________________
1.1 CHROMOSOMES
 An individual’s basic genetic information is found in the __________________ of its cells.
 The main component of the nucleus is ___________________ which is made up of a
molecule of DNA (_____________________________ _________) combined with proteins.
When a cell is about to divide, the chromatin contracts forming visible rods called
___________________. The number of chromosomes is _______________ in each animal
species. In humans, a cell contains __________ chromosomes.
 The number of chromosomes DOES/DOES NOT determine the complexity of the organism.
Chromosomes in a cell are classified according to:
1. ____________________
2. ____________________________________
Chromosomes exist in matching _______________ (______________________ chromosomes).
Humans have 46 chromosomes which form ______ homologous pairs.
A _________________________ is an ordered representation of an individual’s
chromosomes, obtained by grouping them in pairs according to size.
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This is the karyotype of a human male.
Note that in the ________ chromosomes the Y
chromosome is smaller than the X. In females,
the two sex chromosomes are the ___________.
(XX).
http://arnica.csustan.edu/Boty1050/Meiosis/human_karyotype.jpg
1.2 DNA AND GENES
 Each chromosome is made up of ____________.
 ___________ is referred to a ________________ _______________ because it is shaped like
a twisting ladder.
 The chemical units which make up DNA are called ________________.
 Each ____________________ contains 3 chemical components:
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _______________________________________:(A) ___________________, (T),
____________________, (G) _____________________, (C) ____________________
Alternating _____________ and phosphate groups make up the sides of the DNA ladder,
while the ________________________ base pairs make up the “rungs”.
Each nitrogenous base in DNA always pairs with its ______________________ base, according
to the following pattern:
 Adenine always pairs with __________________________. (____-____ or ____-____)
 Cytosine always pairs with __________________________. (____-____ or ____-____)
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 A particular sequence of bases constitutes a ________________.
Inside our cells, we have thousands of _______________ which provide instructions for
making ____________________, which in turn determine traits, such as a person’s
________________, _________________________ or pointed _______________.
A _____________ is a segment of DNA that contains information for making
_____________________.
Environment Extra – DNA mutations of environmental origin (p. 353)
A ________________ is a change in the sequence of DNA nucleotides. Our cells have control
mechanisms that counter most mutations. However, some mutations can cause
_________________.
Many mutations occur when cells divide as a result of errors during DNA replication. Others are
caused by environmental agents, called __________________. Since mutations can cause cancer,
these agents are also known as _______________________. Some carcinogens occur naturally in
the environment (_______ rays or certain forms of ____________________). Other environmental
agents are the result of human activities, such as nuclear waste, ____________________, some types
of pesticides and certain industrial waste, such as ________ and other _____________ derivatives.
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The discharge of these agents into the environment is highly regulated to protect life on earth.
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CHAPTER 11 NOTES
1.3 PROTEINS
 A PROTEIN is a molecule that plays a specific role in the _______________________
of an organism and in the expression of its ___________________________________
_________________________.
11.6 EXAMPLES OF TASKS PERFORMED BY PROTEINS IN ORGANISMS
TASK
EXAMPLE
_____________ is the protein that makes skin firm yet
elastic.
______________________ is a protein that carries
____________ in the blood.
_________________ are proteins that
________________ cell functions and _____________
messages in the body
Example: __________________________________
_______________________ are proteins that protect us
from disease.
_________________________ are proteins that speed up
biochemical reactions in the body.
Examples:______________________________________
PROTEIN STRUCTURE

Proteins are composed of one or more chains of ___________________ _____________.

The sequence of ___________________ _____________ in a chain determines the
_________________ of the protein.

There are ________ different naturally occurring amino acids.

The average protein contains __________ to __________ amino acids.
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 An AMINO ACID is a molecule that can _______________________ with other
amino acids to form ________________________.
 Refer to APPENDIX 4 on p. 529 of your text book for the abbreviations and genetic code
for each amino acid.
1.4 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Cells have the ability to produce the _____________ they need.

The genes containing the instructions for protein manufacture are inside the
__________________.

The process of protein synthesis is carried out by _______________________ (outside
the nucleus on the ______).

mRNA (________________________) carries the information from the __________ to
the _______________________________.
RNA and ______________ have similar structures with a few important differences and they are:
1. DNA is double-stranded while RNA is single-stranded.
2. _____________________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Two types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis:

_____________________ (mRNA) which acts as a _________________ for carrying
instructions about the gene to the ribosome.

__________________ (tRNA) which transfers the ________________ _____________
in the cell’s cytoplasm to the ribosomes in order to make proteins.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ciliate_telomerase_RNA.JPG
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CHAPTER 11 NOTES
THE FOUR STEPS OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (See Figure 11.10 (pp. 358-59)
1. TRANSCRIPTION OF __________ INTO ___________
The genetic information of the _______ is copied to the _____ RNA.
2. ATTACHMENT OF THE ______________ TO THE ________________________
__________ leaves the nucleus and attaches itself to a _________________________.
The ribosome slides over the mRNA reading the codons (groups of ______ nucleotides).
When it comes across ____________, protein synthesis begins. (________ = Start codon)
3. TRANSLATION OF ___________ INTO A _______________________
As the ribosome reads the nucleotide triplets one after the other, __________________
______________ are brought to the chain by ____ RNA. The ___________________
_______________ link together and the ____ RNA is released.
4. END OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: When the ribosome reads _______, _______, or
_______,
the
amino
acid
chain
is
COMPLETE.
The
protein
is
_____________________ from the ribosome and then it folds up and goes to work!
 For better understanding, refer to the PowerPoint on Protein Synthesis posted in FC.
Click on this link to see an animation of protein synthesis:
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/courses/c2005/images/animtransln.gif
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2 Principles of Heredity
Children’s frequent resemblance to their parents is a well-know phenomenon. But why do some
children have blue eyes when both their parents have brown eyes? The answer lies in a
phenomenon called _______________________.
 _______________________ is the transmission of parents’ __________________
______________ to their offspring.
A character trait is considered _________________________ when it can be passed on from the
_________________________ to their ______________________.
Examples:
 ____________________________
 Dwarfism
 ____________________________
 Alzheimer’s disease
 ____________________________
 Heart disease
2.1 CROSSBREEDING
The scientist ____________________ ____________________ was the first to understand how
____________________ ________________ are passed on from one generation to the next
through ____________________ ______________________________.
He used ___________ plants because they can _____________ - ________________________,
thus creating a _______________ line.
 A ________________ line is a group of individuals of the ________________ species,
which, for a __________________ character trait, produces only offspring with the
___________ trait, ___________________ variation.
He chose to study the ________________ of their blossoms because it is a trait that “breeds
_____________”. To understand how this trait was passed down from one generation to the
next, he _______________ - _____________ the plants.
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 ______________________________ is the exchange of __________________ between
two _______________________ individuals during _____________________
reproduction.
What did Mendel do to make sure that self-pollination was impossible?
______________________________________________________________________________
He fertilized the purple flowers with the pollen from white flowers and observed that all the pea
plants obtained by this cross-pollination were plants with ___________________ plants. (What
the heck?)
The plants he created from this cross-pollination are called ___________________.
 A ___________________ is an individual obtained by the _______________________
of two genetically ________________________ individuals.
To continue his research, Mendel left the hybrids to reproduce with on another for ____________
generations.
 A GENERATION is a group of individuals descended from ________________
__________________.
Mendel observed that the white flowers
reappeared in the _______________
generation with one-quarter of all the
flowers being ___________________ and
three-quarters being ______________.
Mendel assumed that _______________
contain information that is passed down
from one generation to the next.
http://www.brown.edu/Courses/BI0032/gentherp/genIB2.html
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2.2 THE PRESENCE OF ALLELES
Mendel didn’t know about chromosomes and genes, but he understood that some type of
information factor, which he called a _______________________ __________________, must
be responsible for the expression of character traits in living organisms.
This ______________________ ____________________ is now known as a ______________.
It’s possible to have different versions of a particular trait, such as flower colour, eye colour, etc.
because of the presence of ________________________.
 An __________________ is a possible form of a ______________. Different
__________________ have different __________________________ sequences.
HOMOZYGOUS AND HETEROZYGOUS
On one your chromosomes from your father, there a gene for eye color and on the matching
chromosome from your mother, there is also a gene for eye colour. Since these genes can carry
different alleles (brown, blue, etc.), it is possible for you to carry __________ distinct alleles for
the ______________ character trait.
When both alleles for a given character trait are identical in an individual, it is said to be
_______________________________ for the trait.
When both alleles for a given character trait are different in an individual, it is said to be
_______________________________ for the trait.
 A __________________________ is an
individual with two identical alleles for a
given character trait.
 A __________________________ is an
individual with two different alleles for a
given character trait.
http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/361-6-Ch2.htm
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DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE ALLELES
 A DOMINANT ALLELE is an allele that is ______________________ when an
individual carries two _______________________ alleles for a given gene.
An allele is said to be “expressed” when it affects how an organism __________________ or
_____________________.
An individual carrying the dominant allele expresses the ____________________ character trait
and can therefore be either ___________________________ or __________________________
dominant (see image at bottom of previous page).
 A RECESSIVE ALLELE is an allele that is _________ ___________________ ___
when an individual carries two _______________________ alleles for a given gene.
For a recessive allele to be expressed in an individual, the two alleles for the particular trait must
be ______________________. The individual is then said to be __________________________
________________________ or to carry a recessive trait. (ex. __________ eyes, albinism, white
flowers on a pea plant, etc.)
Class activity on Dominant and Recessive Traits
http://faculty.virginia.edu/teach-present-bio/GeneticsWorksheet.html
List of Human Traits (dominant and recessive)
http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/jiwilliams/Human_Traits.htm
2.3 GENOTYPES AND PHENOTYPES
Due to the phenomenon of dominance and recessivity in alleles, all of an individual’s alleles may
not be expressed, meaning that they do not affect the individual, but the individual carries them
nonetheless. (ex. You have brown eyes, but may carry the gene for __________ eyes.)
 A _____________________________ is an individual’s genetic inheritance. It describes
all of an individual’s ________________________ for specific ____________________.
When describing an individual’s genotype each allele is represented by a _________________.
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Dominant alleles are represented with ______________________ letters and the corresponding
recessive allele is represented with the ____________________________ form of the
__________________ letter.
 A _____________________________ is the way in which a genotype expresses itself. It
describes the ___________________________ or ____________________ of the
individual for one or more character traits.
HEREDITARY CHARCTER TRAITS IN PEAS, AS STUDIED BY MENDEL
Character trait
Genotypes
Flower colour
Phenotypes
Purple flowers
White flowers
Seed colour
YY or Yy
yy
Seed shape
Round shape
Wrinkled shape
Stem length
LL or Ll
ll
2.4 THE LAW OF SEGREGATION OF ALLELES
Gametes (_____________ and __________________) are formed through a phenomenon of cell
division called ______________________. Each gamete contains only ________________ the
chromosomes normally present in the cells of the organism and thus only ____________
chromosome from each pair and consequently only ____________ allele instead of __________.
When organisms mate, their offspring get half their chromosomes from the _________________
and half from the ___________________.
So why don’t offspring half resemble the father and half resemble the mother?
______________________________________________________________________________
The law states that two alleles for a particular character trait _____________________when
gametes are formed.
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Homozygous individuals produce gametes that all have _______________________ allele.
In heterozygous individuals, ______ percent of the gametes carry the ____________________
allele and ______ percent carry the _______________________ allele.
2.5 DETERMINING POSSIBLE GENOTYPES AND THEIR
PROBABILITY
During reproduction, gametes join at random; so many different combinations of _____________
are possible.
To determine all the genotypes that could occur during gamete fusion and evaluate the
probability of each occurrence, a scientist devised a grid called a _____________________
______________________.
STEPS IN COMPLETING A _______________________ ___________________
1. Determine the ________________________ of each parent.
2. Find all possible _________________________ for the gametes of each parent and write
them in circles.
3. Place the possible gametes from one parent at the ____________ of the Punnett square,
and all possible gametes from the other parent, on the _______________ side of the same
grid.
4. Indicate, inside the Punnett square, all the possible gamete combinations; enter the
resulting ____________________________ and _____________________________.
Example showing what happens when a heterozygous brown- eyed (Bb)person mates with a
homozygous blue-eyed (bb) person.
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2.6 THE LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OF CHARCTER
TRAITS
To predict the genotype or phenotype of offspring when considering more than one character
trait, you must complete a 4 × 4 Punnett square. This is known as a dihybrid cross.
Example: A female guinea pig with the genotype BbSs (black short hair) is crossed with a male
guinea pig whose genotype is bbSs (brown short hair).
NOTE: Black hair (B) is dominant and brown hair (b) is recessive
Short hair (S) is dominant and long hair (s) is recessive
What are the chances that these two guinea pigs with produce a guinea pig with brown long
hair? ______________
3 Cloning
There are two natural methods of reproduction: __________________ and _________________.
The offspring produced by sexual reproduction are genetically _______________________
because it inherits a __________________ combination of genes from ______________ parents.
The offspring produced by asexual reproduction are genetically ___________________ to their
single parent. They are ____________________.
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_________________________ is the reproduction of an individual, _____________ of that
individual or one of its __________________ in order to obtain an extra _______________.
3.1 NATURAL CLONING
When cloning occurs in nature, ______________________ any human intervention, it is called
_______________________ _________________________. It produces genetically
_______________________ individuals through ________________________ reproduction.
EXAMPLES OF NATURAL CLONING
Form of asexual reproduction
Description
A new individual forms from a _________________________
________________________
that eventually detached itself from the ___________________.
Example: Hydra
Specific to plants, roots called __________________ develop
from branches in contact with the ground. If the stolon
________________________
detached itself from the parent plant, it becomes a ___________
individual.
Example: Mangrove trees
Specific to plants, a new individual is formed from a
________________________
________________________
________________________ section of the plant (other than its
__________________), which falls to the ground and roots
itself.
http://img2.allposters.com/images/PTGPOD/OSOSF00002234-001-FB.jpg
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3.2 ARTIFICIAL PLANT CLONING
Layering and cutting techniques have been used by humans for centuries. People often take a
____________________ from a plant and put it in water until ________________ grow. Then
they can transfer the new plant to a ______________. This type of cloning is considered
artificial because _____________________ are involved.
Artificial plant cloning allows ___________________ and ____________________ to obtain
identical copies of individual plants with _______________________ characteristics.
Read the ENVIROMENT EXTRA “Farmer’s fields or pharmaceutical factories?” on p. 370
What is molecular farming?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Click on this link to learn about “Golden Rice” - rice that was genetically modified to produce
beta-carotene to prevent millions of children in Africa and South East Asia from dying from
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rice
3.3 ARTIFICIAL ANIMAL CLONING
Animals that reproduce ________________________ cannot be cloned naturally.
Mammals can be cloned artificially using the following technique:
1. A ________________ is removed from the individual to be ______________________.
2. An ________________ (egg) is taken from another individual and its
___________________ (thus DNA) is removed.
3. The __________________ and the “enucleated” ____________________ are combined
creating an _____________________ with the same genetic material as the
______________________ individual.
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4. The embryo is __________________________ into the uterus of a
______________________ mother. The embryo grows and develops until the
_________________________ gives birth to a clone of the _________________________
individual.
Click on this link to read about the ewe Dolly (July 5, 1996 – February 14, 2003) who was the
first animal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell, using the process of nuclear transfer.
 http://www.bootstrike.com/Genetics/Cloning/dolly_the_sheep.html
3.4 HUMAN CLONING
Human cloning may take one of two forms:

_______________________________ cloning

_______________________________ cloning
The purpose of ______________________________ cloning would be to produce babies that
are genetically identical to the people being cloned. (Currently ________________________ in
Canada and many other countries)
The purpose of ____________________________ cloning would be to obtain tissues (ex. skin
for burn victims) or _____________________ that are genetically identical to those of a person
in need of a __________________________ or graft. The benefit of this type of cloning is that
the risk of rejection of such tissues or organs by the individual is _____________.
3.5 MOLECULAR CLONING
Many illnesses, such as cystic fibrosis, are due to _____________________ genes. In order to
find a cure, scientists need to study such genes more closely so they clone the ______________
so that they can obtain multiple ____________________. This is called
________________________ cloning (also ____________ or _____________ cloning.)
END OF CHAPTER 11
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