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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
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HAEMATOLOGY
Plasma makes 55% of blood volume
Each RBC contains 270,000,000 Hemoglobin molecules.
Optimum amount of Hb in male is 16 gm / 100 ml and in female it is 13-14 gm / 100 ml.
Haemocrit value
- It is the percentage of blood sample volume made up of RBC.
Life span of RBC
- 120 days.
Life span of RBC in the transfused blood
- 60 days.
Life span of foetal RBC
- 180 days.
Bilurubin is the breakdown product of RBC.
Time taken for completing Erythropoiesis is 72 hours
White blood corpuscles
Neutrophils
70%
Eosinophils
3 – 8%
Basophils
0.5%
large granules present
Lymphocytes
20 – 30%
Monocytes
1%
Largest leucocyte
Life span of Platelets is 9 – 10 days.
Blood plasma contains 500 proteins.
Biological signature is the Antigens ( A and B ) present on the surface of RBC.
Foetal hemopoiesis occurs in the blood islands of Yol sac, Liver, Speen and Bone marrow.
H Antigen is the precursor of A and B antigens.
Thromboplatin is released from Platelets.
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ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE – ESR
Rate of settlement of RBC
High ESR indicates infections like TB.
Normal ESR is 3-5 mm / Hr in male and 7-12mm / Hr in female.
Wintrobe tube is used to measure ESR.
ESR above 20mm / Hr. is an indication of infection.
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ANTI COAGULANTS
Heparin, Sodium oxalate, Sodium citrate, EDTA.
Von Willebrand disease is a bleeding disorder.
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DISORDERS RELATED TO BLOOD CELLS
Polycythemia
Anemia
Microcytic anemia
Megaloblatic anemia
Pernicious anemia
Aplastic anemia
High RBC count
Low RBC or Hb count
Due to lack of Iron
Due to lack of Folic acid and
Due to lack of Cyanocobalamin – Vit. B12.
Due to destruction of Bone marrow.
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Lecopenia
Leukemia
Eosinophilia
Septicemia
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RED CELL INDICES
TRANSFERRIN
TRANSCOBALAMIN
HAPTOGLOBINS
Low WBC count due to deficiency of Folic acid.
High WBC count.
High Eosinophil count – above 12%.
Blood poisoning due to the toxins from microbes.
It is the measure of the size and Hb content of RBC.
It is the plasma protein transporting Iron.
It is the plasma protein that transports Vit.B12.
It is the transport substance of Hbptoducts
They protects cells from the destroyed RBC products.
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CYANMETHOGLOBIN
Stable derivative of Hb. It is used to test the
Hb. Concentration.
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HIRUDIN
Anticoagulant from the salivary glands of leech.
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HIRUDIN
An artificial anticoagulant produced from plant
by genetic engineering.
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NATURAL ANTICOAGULANTS
Heparin
From liver
Plasmin
From tissues.
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ARTIFICIAL ANTICOAGULANTS
Used for preventing blood clotting during storage or during experiments.
Sodium oxalate, Sodium citrate, Potassium citrate, Potassium oxalate,EDTA etc are used.
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MENADIONE
It is the synthetic Vit. K used to prevent bleeding after the surgery. Heparin is used during
the surgery to prevent blood clotting.
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Chilling also prevent blood clotting in test tubes and blood bags.
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Life span of RBC is limited because of the absence of Nucleus.
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Hemoglobin makes about 95% of RBC.
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Eosinophil is the motile phagocytic cell.
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Eosinophils make about 3% of total WBC.
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Non granular or Mononucleic lecocytes are Lymphocytes and Monocytes.
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Lymphocytes contain non specific Azurophilic granules.
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Blood of Man and Primates is related due to the presence of Antigens and Antibodies.
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Perflurocarbon is used to make artificial blood.
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Artificial blood has no antigens so it will not cause agglutination in the recipients body.
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Myloma is the cancer of Plasma cells. Plasma cells are a kind of WBC found in tissues.
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Haemorrhagic anemia is due to excessive bleeding.
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Hemolytic anemia is due to rupture of RBC.
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Nutritional anemia results from malnutrition.
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ABNORMAL RBCs.
Acanthocytes, Echinocytes ( Burr cells ), Codocytes ( Target cells ), Schizocytes ( Spur
cells ), Stomocytes, Spherostomocytes.
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ROULEAU FORMATION
It is the abnormal arrangement of RBC. RBC arrange like coins in a stack.
Total blood volume is measured using radio active Chromium.
ERYTHROPOETIN
Hormone produced from the kidney that stimulate Erythropoiesis.
Lipemia or excess fat leads to Greyish greesy plasma.
Ghost cells are the remnants of RBC without Hb. It contains only the membrane. RBC
Ghosts are used to study the structure of Plasma membrane.
Diapedesis is the squeezing of WBC through the blood capillaries. It is similar to amoeboid
movement.
Null cells are the lymphocytes present in the Lymphoid organs. They have cytotoxic
properties. They do not have surface markers. Null cells are called as Natural Killer cells.
They destroy infected and tumour cells.
Hemostasis is the decrease in platelet count. It is characterized by Purpura ( haemorrhage
under the skin and mucous membrane ) .
Antarctic fish is the only animal with White blood.
Blood worm or Chironomous larva is the only insect with Red blood.
Buffer of blood is NaHCO3 – Sodium carbonate.
The ratio of RBC to WBC is 600:1
BLOOD GROUPS
Rh factor was discovered by Landsteiner and Weiner in 1940.
If a man is Rh positive and mother is Rh negative, the first child will
survive.
The Rh factor will detect in the Foetal blood from the 10th week.
Anti-A and Anti-B appear in the Foetal blood about 4-8 months after birth.
Those present at the time of birth are that of the mother
HEART
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Lung fish has two auricles and one ventricle.
Crocodile, Alligator and Gravialis have four chambered heart.
Heart of fish is venous heart because it receives deoxygenated blood.
Nereis and Amphioxus do not have heart.
Heart of Prawn contains oxygenated blood.
Average weight of human heart is – Male 300 g and Female 250 g.
Excess Calcium increases heart rate.
Papillary muscles are found in Mammalian heart.
Keber’s organ or Pericardial gland is found in Freshwater Mussel. It discharge excretory
materials to the Pericardial cavity.
Blue whale has the largest heart in the animal kingdom.
Tread Mill Test or TMT is used to check the efficiency of Heart.
CARDIAC INDEX is the minute volume per square meter of body surface area. Its normal
volume is 3.3 lit / min / sq.m.
Heart is the busiest organ in the body.
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Atrioventricular groove or Coronary Sulcus and Interventricular groove are present on
the surface of Heart.
Sinus Venosus is completely merged with Right auricle in Mammals.
Right auricle receives Superior venacava, Inferior venacava and Coronory sinus.
Valve of Thebesius is present at the opening of Coronary sinus.
Tricuspid valve is present between Right Auricle and Right Ventricle.
Chordae tendinae are White fibrous threads extending from Bicuspid , Tricuspid valves
and to the Papillary muscles of Ventricle.
Left ventricle is thicker than Right ventricle to push blood forcefully.
Heart wall has 3 layers
Outer
Epicardium
Membraneous
Middle
Myocardium
Muscular
Inner
Endocardium
Membraneous
CARDIAC CYCLE
Atrial systole
0.18 seconds
Atrial diastole
0.08 seconds
Ventricular systole
0.3 seconds
Ventricular diastole
0.32 seconds
Joint diastole – all chambers
in diastole
0.4 seconds
Cardiac cycle is completed in 0.88 second.
Lubb sound is produced when AV valve closes during the Ventricular Systole. It is the first
sound low pitched and long duration ( 0.15 seconds ). Its frequency is 25-45 Hz.
Dupp sound is produced when Semilunar valve closes at the start of relaxation of
Ventricles. It is the second sound with high pitch and short duration ( 0.12 seconds ). Its
frequency is 50 Hz.
Pulse Pressure is the difference between Systolic and Diastolic pressures. Its normal value
is 40 mm.Hg.
Normal heart beat at rest is 70-72 /minute in man and 80 / minute in women and children.
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped in to the Aorta per minute. It is 5 litres.
SA node is the first to originate heart beat. It determines the rate of Heart beat.
SA node has the highest rate of Autorhythemicity.
AV node is the Pace Setter of Heart. It conducts impulse from SA node.
Bradycardia is the slowing of heart rate – below 60 / min.
Tachycardia is the increase in heart rate - above 72 / min.
Heart rate is accelerated by Sympathetic system and Adrelalin.
Mouse has the highest heart rate.
Bicuspid valve is called Mitral valve. It is present between Left Auricle and Left Ventricle.
Origin of heart beat and conduction – SA node …… AV node ---- Bundle of His ….
Purkinje fibres …. Ventricle wall.
Elephant has the largest heart.
Pericardium has two layers. Outer Parietal ( Fibrous ) and inner Visceral ( Serous ).
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CARDIAC MUSCLE
Smaller in diameter – 15 microns
Formed of individual muscle cells.
Intercalated discs present between the cardiac muscle cells conduct
impulses.
Contains Large number of Mitochondria.
Do not fatigue because it is incapable of Oxygen debt.
Fossa ovalis is the depression present in the inter auricular septum. It is the remnant of the
embryonic Foramen Ovale.
Moderator band is the thick muscle bundle extending between the inter ventricular
septum and ventricular wall.
Left ventricle is three times thicker than Right ventricle.
Eustachian valve is present at the opening of Inferior venacava.
Thesbian valve is present at the opening of Coronary sinus.
The cusps of Bicuspid and Tricuspid valves are formed by the folding of Endocardium.
When heart valves break down in older persons and inactive persons, blood pool in the
vein of legs leading to Vericose vein.
Mechanical heart valves are made up of plastic or metal. Regular use of Anticoagulants is
necessary to prevent blood clotting if the mechanical valve is transplanted.
Bio-prosthetic valve is artificial valve taken from animals like Pig.
Semi lunar valves are present at the opening of Arteries in the heart.
Stenosis is the condition in which the heart valve narrows and open incompletely.
Mycardium is supported by White Fibrous tissue. It forms the cardiac skeleton.
AV node can act as Pace maker in diseased heart but rate of impulse formation is low – 4050- / min.
FRANK – STARLING LAW
States that the more the heart muscle is stretched, the greater
will be the quantity of blood pumped in to the aorta.
Cardiomegaly is the enlargement of Heart.
Nervous regulation of heart beat
Sympathetic
Aceelerate heart beat
Parasympathetic through Vagus nerve - reduces heart rate.
by producing Acetylcholine.
Hormonal regulation of heart beat.
Thyroxine
Increases heart beat.
Epinephrine
Increases heart rate in emergency
Nor Epinephrine Increases heart rate in normal situations
Pulse rate increases when there is excitement.
Acetylcholine hyper polarize the SA node and slows down impulse formation. It leads
to Bradycardia or slow heart beat.
Heart rate is related to the size of animal and metabolism. Small animals have high
metabolism and hence high heart rate. Larger animals have low metabolic rate and hence
low heart rate. Eg. Heart rate of Rat- 300 times / min. Elephant – 25 times / min.
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Tachycardia is produced by
Increase in BP in Vena cava
High blood CO2 content
Decrease in O2 and low pH
High body temperature
Decrease of Thyroxine and Increase in Adrelalin
Stimulation of pain receptors
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Bradycardia is produced by
63. ISOMETRIC PHASE
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Increase in BP in Aorta
Low CO2 content in blood
High O2 content and High pH
Decrease in core body temperature
Increase in Thyroxine and Decrease in Adranalin
First phase of cardiac cycle when all valves are closed and atria and
ventricles are relaxed.
ECG
Waller in 1887 recorded first ECG.
Einthoven is considered as the Father of Electrocardiography
ECG is represented by 5 waves – PQRST.
P
De polarisation of Atria. Actvation of SA node
QRS De polarization of Ventricles
PQ
Atrial contraction
QR Spread of excitation from SA node to AV node
RS
Spread of excitation from AV node to Purkinje system
T
Repolarisation of Ventricles
R
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It has the largest Amplitude.
MAREY’S LAW
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CARDIAC OUTPUT
Shows the inversion relationship between rate of heart beat and
Blood pressure.
Stroke volume X Heart rate. 70 ml X 72 / min = 5040 ml/min
That is 5L per minute.
CIRCULATION
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William Harvey described circulation in animals.
Angiology is the study of blood vessels.
Double circulation is present in Lung fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles and Man.
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PORTAL SYSTEM
Hepatic portal vein is formed of Gastric, Intestinal and Splenic veins.
Hepatic portal system starts from the alimentary canal and opens into
Post caval vein after receiving blood from liver and then to heart. It is
present in all vertebrates. Posterior mesenteric, Anterior mesenteric,
Duodenal and Lineogastric join to form the hepatic portal vein in
vertebrates. Functions – 1. removal of nutrients. 2. Deamination of extra
amino acids and conversion of ammonia to urea. 3. Detoxification of
chemicals 4. Transfer of liver products to the blood.
Renal portal system.
Starts from the posterior part of the body and opens into the Kidney. It is
well developed in Fishes and Amphibians. Reduced in Reptiles and Birds.
Absent in Mammals.
Hypophysial portal system
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Hypophysial vein collects blood from the Hypothalamus to the Anterior
lobe of Pituitary. It is the Minor Portal system present in Higher
vertebrates.
Systemic circulation is called Greater circulation.
Pulmonary circulation is called Lesser circulation.
Lowest level of Glucose is present in Hepatic Portal Vein.
Highest level of Amino acids is present in Hepatic Portal Vein.
Highest level of Urea is present in Hepatic vein .
Lowest level of Urea is present in Renal Portal Vein.
Vasa Vasorum is the blood vessel supplying blood to the blood vessels.
Double circulation is present in Lung fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and in Man where
Arteriovenous heart is present.
Trunchus Arteriosus divides into Systemic and Pulmonary arches in Mammals.
Pulmonary artery is the only artery carrying deoxygenated blood.
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SPLEEN
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It is the Grave yard of RBC. It filters dead RBC. Spleen is the largest lymph
gland. Spleen is formed of Red pulp ( Reticular tissue rich in RBC ) having small
patches of White pulp ( Lymphatic nodules ). Spleen is surrounded by a White
fibrous capsule.
Functions of Spleen
1. Filteration of dead RBC and Storage of RBC.
2. Formation of Agranulocytes.
3. Production of Antibodies.
4. Storage of Iron.
5. In embryo Spleen produces RBC.
6. Disposal of foreigh bodies by Macrophages.
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FOETAL CIRCULATION
3 major vascular shunts are present in foetus. These are Ductus venosus,
Foramen ovale and Ductus arteriosus. If the shunts persists after birth,
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood occurs in the heart leading
to Blue Baby.
Coronary artery is the smallest artery.
Coronary veins collect blood from the wall of heart and opens into Right Atrium.
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Important Arteries
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Pulmonary
Coronary
Subclavian
Carotid
Phrenic
Hepatic
Lienogastric
Renal
Iliac
To lungs
To Heart
Forelimbs
Head and Brain
Diaphragm
Liver
Stomach and Spleen
Kidney
Hind limbs
Jugular
Azygous
Lingual
Femoral and Sciatic
Hepatic
Hepatic portal
Vesicular
Caudal
From Head
Important Veins
From Tongue
From Hind limbs
From liver
From digestive system
Urinary bladder
Tail
Haemolytic Disease of Newborn – HDN
It is due to maternal Alloimmunisation ( immunity from mothers body ) related to ABO
and Rh incompatibility. Foetal blood produces IgM antibodies. This causes HDN leading to
Erythroblastosis foetalis. In the subsequent pregnancies IgG are produced . They are the
only antibodies that crosses placenta.
RhoGAM is the Vaccine used to prevent Erythroblastosis foetalis.
JARVIK-7 is the artificial Heart developed by Robert k. Jarvik in 1980.
ABIOCOR is device functions like heart.
First Heart transplant
Christian Bernard in Dec. 21, 1967 at Cape town S. Africa.
India’s first Heart transplant Dr. P.Venugopal of AIIMS New Delhi on Aug.3, 1994.
First successful implant of Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator ( ICD ) – Dr. K.K. Talwar
of AIIMS on 17 April 1995.
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IMMUNE SYSTEM
1. Non specific immune system
2. Specific or Acquired immunity
3. Natural barriers
4. First line defense system
Natural defense mechanisms. Skin, Interferon, Lysozymes
Mechanism to recognize and destroy pathogens. Done by
T cells and B cells.
Anatomical barrier
Skin
Physiological barrier
Lysozyme, Interferon, High
Temperature, Acidty.
Phagocytic barrier
Macrophages
Inflamatory barrier
Complement system
Destroys pathogens before activating the immune system.
Natural barriers like Skin.
5. INTERFERONS
Glycoproteins released by cells infected with Virus. They are alsoproduced from
WBC. Interferon makes near by cell immune to viral infections.
6. MACROPHAGES
Modified Monocytes that ingest microbes by phagocytosis.
7. INFLAMATION
Manifestation of infection in a localized area. Symptoms include redness, pain,
swelling etc. Inflamatort response is produced by Histamines and Prostaglandins
produced by the injured cells and damaged Mast cells. These chemicals causes
leakage of vascular fluid and influx of macrophages to the infected area.
8. KILLER CELLS
These are WBC that kill the virus infected or tumour cells by making Perforinlined pores in the plasma membrane. These pores permit water to enter the cells.
The cells swells and bursts.
9. COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
A group of 30 proteins in the blood. Protect the body from disease germs. The
action of complement system causes formation of trans membrane pores in the
microbes leading to their lysis. Some complement proteins form a coating over
the microbe, so that they can be killed by phagocytes.
10. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
Acquired immunity . It is the capacity of the body to recognize pathogens
selectively and destroy them. It is an adaptive character of vertebrates.
Important features of Adaptive immunity are
1. Specificity 2. Diversity 3. Discrimination of self and non self molecules
4. Memory
Cells involved in acquired immunity are Lymphocytes like T cells like T- helper
cells, T- cyto toxic cells B cells and Antigen presenting cells.
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T cells
Produced in the bone marrow and mature in the Thymus. Produce Cell mediated
response.
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B cells
Produced in the bone marrow and mature in the bone marrow. Produce
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Antibody mediated response.
HUMORAL IMMUNITY
Antibody mediated response by B cells. B cells produce antibodies that circulate
through blood and destroy pathogens.
ACTIVE IMMUNITY
Response in the body by the invasion of a foreign antigen.
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Artificial immunity produced by introducing antibodies or serum into the body.
THYMUS
It is the site of maturation of T cells that give cell mediated immunity. When
thymus is removed, T cells cannot mature.
T-HELPER CELLS
Activate the B cells
T- CYTOTOXIC CELLS
Destroy antigens.
ANTIBODY
Immunoglobulins produced in the blood by B lymphocytes. They are
Glycoproteins specific to antigens. Each antibody has 4 polypeptide chains. 2
long Heavy chains 2 short Light chains. The heavy and light chains are
connected by Di sulphide bonds to form a Y shaped structure. Both heavy and
Light chains have Constant and Variable regions. Antigens bind to the variable
region. The amino acid sequence of the variable region is different in various
antibodies. This variation produces numerous types of antibodies to react with
enormous number of antigens.
IMMUNIGLOBULINS
Secreted by B cells. There are 5 types of immunoglobulins.
IgA
protection from Inhaled antigens
IgD
Activate B cells
IgE
Allergic response
IgG
Stimulate Phagocytes. Activate Complement system.
Only Antibody crosses placenta and gives Foetal immunity.
IgM
Activate B cells. First formed
Antigen destruction
Free antibodies destroy antigens by 3 mechanisms.
1. Agglutination
Binding to antigens
2. Oposonisation
Coating over bacteria
3. Neutralization
Neutralize the toxins of bacteria.
Eg. Tetanus toxin
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CLONAL SELECTION
The receptors present on the T and B cells interact with antigens. The cells
activate and divide to form a clone of cells. The clone also produce other cells like
T- cyto toxic cells.
Significance
1. Produce large number of B and T cells.
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2. Produces effector cells like antibody secreting B cells and T
cytotoxic cells.
3. Some T cells become Memory cells.
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IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY
When an antigen enters, large number of T cells multiply to form a clone. Some T
cells remain as Memory cells. When the same antigen enters second time, the
Memory cells divide rapidly and give immunity.
Primary Immune Response
Develop when an antigen enters the body leading to the multiplication of T cells.
Secondary Immune Response
Result of the multiplication of Memory cells.
DPT vaccine requires a Booster dose to activate the Memory cells to give longer immunity.
PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
Sites in which Lymphocytes proliferate and mature. Thymus ( T cells ) Bone
marrow ( B cells ).
SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS
Sites in which Lymphocytes differentiate into specific lymphocytes for an antigen
Lymphnodes, Spleen, Tonsils.
First Vaccine is the Rabies Vaccine produced by Jenner in 1796.
Antigenic Polypeptides are artificially produced Vaccines through Genetic Engineering.
Artificial Vaccines
Antigenic polypeptide, Hepatitis B vaccine from transgenic Yeast.
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX – MHC
A group of genes present in the 6th chromosome of Mouse. Determine the
compatibility of donor and recepient tissues during transplantation.
HUMAN LECOCYTE ANTIGENS – HLA System
Genes present in the 6th chromosome of Man. They determine the tissue
compatibility. The group of HLA genes is called Haplotype. An individual
receives one Haplotype from father and the second from the mother.
Genes
Gene products
1 HLA
DP-DQ-DR-----C2-Bf-C4-B---------------------C-A
Class 2 HLA
Complement components Class
Factor B
Diseases associated with HLA system
1. Reiter’s syndrome
2. Addison’s disease
3. Thyrotoxicosis
4. Coeliac disease
5. Insulin dependent diabetes
6. Haemochromatosis
7. Psoriasis
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Identical twins only have same HLA haplotypes.
TISSUE TYPING
Matching of HLA proteins before tissue transplantation.
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ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
Sudden and violent allergic reaction in response to an allergen. It is a fatal
condition. Egs. Bee bite, Drugs like Penicillin.
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
Body consider own cells as foreign and destroy them.
1. Insulin dependent Diabetes
2. Multiple Sclerosis - degeneration of Myelin sheath in nerves.
3. Rheumatoid Arthritis- degeneration of joints.
Organ specific autoimmune diseases
1. Primary Myxedema
2. Thyrotoxicosis
3. Pernicious anemia
4. Addison’s disease
5. Good Pasteu’s syndrome
6. Myasistheniagravis
7. Chronic active hepatitis
Non organ specific autoimmune diseases
1. Rheumatoid arthritis
2. Dermatomysitis 3. Systemic sclerosis.
IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES
Caused by Mutations, Infections, Malnutrition Egs. AIDS
SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SCID
Genetic defects. Low circulating Thymocytes. Fatal condition.
Egs. Adenosine deaminase deficiency ( ADA ), AIDS
Humoral immuno deficiencies
1. X linked Hypogammaglobinaemia
2. DiGeoge syndrome
Combined immunodeficiencies
1. Nezelof’s syndrome
2. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome
Phagocyte deficiencies
1. Chediak- Higashi syndrome
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2. Job’s syndrome
HIV INFECTION
HIV infects T lymphocytes. DNA produced by the virus from its RNA is inserted
to the human chromosome. The inserted DNA replicate along with host DNA.
The viral DNA then transcribes m RNA for viral protein and its own RNA.
Genetic RNA thus formed will be packaged into the protein to form new virus.
Since HIV infects Lymphocytes, the disease cannot be cured because any drug that destroy
Lymphocytes will permanently destroy the immune system.
AIDS is not contagious because the virus multiply only in Lymphocytes and are introduced
only through blood , saliva and semen.
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Immune benefits of Human Milk
It contains
1. B cell macrophages
2. Neurtophil T cells
3. IgA antibodies
4. Bifidus factor
Produce antibodies
Act as phagocytes
destroy antigens in the baby’s digestive tract.
promote the growth of Lactobacillus bifidus . It is a
harmless bacteria prevents the growth of other bacteria
5. Fibronectin
increases anti microbial activity of macrophages.
6. Interferon – IFN gamma enhances anti microbial activity of immune cells.
7. Lactoferrin
Reduces the availability of Iron for bacteria
8. Lysozyme
kill bacteria by disrupting cell wall
SOME IMPORTANT FACTS FROM CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
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Wall of artery has 3 layers
1. Tunica interna
Innermost layer made up of Squamous epithelium. It forms the
Endothelium or Intima.
2. Tunica media
Middle layer made up of Smooth muscles and Elastic fibres.
3. Tunica externa
Outermost layer made up of Collagen and Elastic fibres.
Blood is termed as the “ Seat of Soul “.
Plasma forms 55% of blood volume.
pH of blood is around 7.4 - slightly alkaline.
PLASMA PROTEINS
1. Serum albumin 4.5 / 100ml. Keeps the osmotic pressure of blood
2. Serum Globulins 2.79 / 100 ml. Forms antibodies.
3. Fibrinogen
0.3 g
Helps in blood clotting.
1. Normal blood glucose
2. Normal blood urea
3. Normal bilurubin
4. Creatine
80 – 120 mg / 100 ml.
34 mg / 100 ml
0.2 – 1.2 mg / 100 ml
1 mg / 100 ml.
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Albumins and Globulins retain water in the blood by osmotic effects.
When plasma proteins decrease in the blood, water leakes into tissue spaces leading to
edema.
Plasma proteins maintains the pH of blood.
Diameter of Human RBC is 7.2 microns and thickness 2 microns near the rim and 1 micron
near the center.
Haemocytometer is used to take RBC count.
Normal Hb content is 15g / 100 ml blood.
Hg content is measured by using Haemoglobinometer.
About 2 – 10 million RBC are destroyed and replaced per second.
Each RBC can carry 1120 million O2 molecules during 120 days.
Size of WBC varies from 8 – 15 microns.
DLC is the differential leucocyte count.
Thrombocytopenia is the low platelet count.
LEUCOCYTES
1. Neutrophils
2. Basophil
3. Eosinophil
4. Lymphocyte
5. Monocyte
Stain violet . Size 9-12 microns. Soldiers of the body.
Also called Cyanophils. S shaped nucleus. Stain blue with methylene
Blue.
Bi lobed nucleus. Stained red.
Smallest WBC. Large nucleus. Produce antibodies.
Largest WBC. Horse shoe shaped nucleus. Act as Phagocytes.
BLOOD CLOTTING
1. Prothrombin is present in the blood plasma.
2. Platelets release Thromboplastin. It activates Prothrombinase.
3. Prothrobinase hydrolyse Prothrombin to Thrombin.
4. Thrombin converts Fibrinogen to Fibrin. ( soluble to insoluble protein )
5. Calcium ions are necessary for the conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin.
ANTITHROBIN It is a natural anticoagulant present in the blood that prevent accidental
clotting inside the blood vessels.
PLASMIN
It is an inactive proteolytic enzyme that become active in the Uterus.
17.
18.
Sinus venosus is an Accessory chamber.
Sinus venosus is the Pace Maker of Amphibian heart.
15
19.
20.
21.
22.
Human heart is 12 cm long and 9 cm wide.
Normal heart rate of newborn baby is 140 / minute.
Pulse can be felt in the Radial and Carotid arteries.
Stephen Hales demonstrated BP in 1733.
SA NODE
It is the “Heart of Heart “ because contraction originate from it. It has P cells (pace maker cells )
and
( Transitional
cells ). Pfrom
cells the
initiate
impulsenerve
and T– cells
transmit impulse.
18.T cells
Heart
receives branches
10th cranial
Vagus.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Vagus nerve inhibits heart and Sympathetic nerve stimulates.
Human heart is a “ Double Pump “.
Coronary artery starts from the base of Aorta.
Atheroma is the deposition of cholesterol in the arteries.
PDGP – Platelet Derived Growth Factor is produced from platelets and causes Plaques.
P-wave of ECG
QRS
T wave
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Upward wave. Depolarisation of Auricle.
Triangular wave. Ventricular depolarization.
Smallest wave. Ventricular repolarisation.
Vector cardiography is the used to get 3 D impression of the electrical activities of heart.
Artificial pacemaker uses Lithium cell to power it. It has long life.
Lymph is the “ Middle man “ of the body. It act as the link between blood and tissues.
Pyrogens are compounds produced by WBC that causes fever.
Pyrogen formation is inhibited by drugs like Paracetamol and Aspirin.
Hay Fever is an allergic disease.
IgG is the most abundant Antibody.
Killer T cells
Helper T cells
Cytolytic cells. Directly attack antigens. Release Cytokines or
Lymphokines.
Help other T cells. Help B cells to produce antibodies.
Suppressor T cells Suppress T and Killer cells. It reduces Immune Tolerance
( Attaching own cells )
31.
GALT
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissues. Payer’s patches , Appendix etc.
Similar to Bursa.
B cells are produced 2000 molecules per second.
Innate immunity is the inborn immunity.
Attenuated vaccine is the weakened pathogens used for vaccination.
Edward Jenner developed vaccine but named by Louis Pasteur.
Global immunization programme was launched by WHO in 1974 for 6 diseases.
Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Tb, Measels.
Universal Immunisation Programme was started in India in 1985.
Antiserum is prepared from horse serum . Eg. Anti Tetanus Serum – ATS.
Metalnikoff in 1900 reported Autoimmune response in Pigs.
16
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
Donath and Landsteiner in 1904 reported Autoimmune diseases.
Haemostasis is the arrest of bleeding. Blood clotting mechanism.
Cardioscope is used to observe the inner side of heart.
Hemophobia is the aversion to blood.
Hemostat is the instrument to stop bleeding.
Viscosity of blood is 4.5 – 5.5 of that of water.
17
RESPIRATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Anaerobic respiration is found in Roundworms, Liver fluke, Tapeworm etc.
Mammalian RBC respire Anaerobically because of the absence of Mitochondria.
Skeletal muscle respire anaerobically when it contracts vigorously.
In Frog about 2 / 3 of oxygen uptake takes place through the skin during summer.
Tracheal respiration is seen in Insects and Myriapods.
Cockraoch has 10 pairs of Spiracles.
Two vocal cords are present in the Larynx of man.
Cricoid and Thyroid cartilages support the wall of Trachea.
Larynx is supported by Thyroid cartilage.
Alveolus has 0.1mm diameter and 0.5 mm thickness.
Alveoli are lined with Simple squmous epithelium.
Mediastenum is the space between the lungs in which heart is located.
Parietal pleura is the outer lining of lungs and Visceral pleura inner lining.
Normal breathing rate of man is 12-14 / min.
Tidal volume
Inspiratory Reserve Volume – IRV
Expiratory Reserve volume – ERV
Vital capacity – Sum of IRV and ERV
Residual volume
Total lung capacity
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
500 ml
3000 ml
1000 ml
3.5-4.5 L
1500 ml
Sum of Vital capacity and Residual volume.
Hering Breur receptors are stretch receptors present in the lungs.
Pneumotaxic or Pontine center is present is present in the Pons of the brain.
Pontine center keeps the timing of respiration.
Chemoreceptors present in the Pharynx and Larynx inhibits the respiratory centers.
Eg. Inhaling of Hydrogen sulphide.
Partial pressure of O2 in the inspired air is 158 mm Hg and that of CO2 is 0.3 mm Hg.
Oxygen tension in the blood capillary is 40 mm Hg and that of CO2 is 46 mm Hg.
BLOOD PIGMENTS
Pigment
Haemoglobin
Haemocyanin
Haemerythrin
Chlorocruorin
Vanadium
Metal part
Iron
Copper
Iron
Copper
Vanadium
Oxygenated
Red
Blue
Red
Green
Green
Deoxygenated
Red
Colourless
Colourless
Green
Green
Distribution
Vertebrates, Annelids(plasma )
Arthropods, Molluscs
Annelids
Annelids
Tunicates
Ascidia
18
GAS TRANSPORT
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
3% Oxygen is transported through plasma.
97% Oxygen is transported as Oxyhaemoglobin.
1 g Haemoglobin takes 1.34 ml O2
100ml Hemoglobin can carry 20.44 ml Oxygen.
90% saturation of Hb takesplace even at a PO2 of 60 mm Hg.
Oxygen – Hemoglobin curve shows the relation between PO2 and Hb saturation.
Carbon dioxide transport
5%
as Carbonic acid
10% as Carbaminohemoglobin ( HbNH COOH )
85% as Bicarbonates
Chloride shift or Hamberger phenomenon occurs from the plasma into the RBC.
Every 100 ml blood releases 3.7 ml CO2 in the lungs.
Eupnea is the normal breathing.
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
1. Asphyxia
Failure of O2 delivery to tissues due to Chocking, Drowning etc.
2. Dyspnoea
Difficulty to breath
3. Hypoxia
Also called Anoxia. O2 deficiency at tissue level
4. Arterial hypoxia Deficiency of O2 in the air
5. Anemic hypoxia Deficiency of O2 due to low Hb content
6. Stagnant hypoxia Due to inadequate blood flow
7. Histoxic hypoxia Tissue can not utilize O2 due to Cyanide poisoning
8. Tachypnea
Rapid breathing
9. Cyanosis
Accumulation of Oxyhemoglobin in the blood
10. Hypercapnea
Excess CO2 in the blood
11. Hypocapnea
Low CO2 in the blood
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Affinity of Hb towards CO2 is 250 times greater than that of O2
Oxygen with 6% CO2 is used to treat Carbon monoxide poisoning
CO2 stimulate the respiratory center of the brain
Moutain sickness develop when PO2 level falls in the high altitude
Heart rate, RBC count, etc increase during Moutain sickness
Book gills are the respiratory organs of Limulus or King Crab
Book lungs are present in Scorpion and Spider
Kiss of Life is the Artificial breathing
Respiratory Quotient is the ratio of volume of CO2 evolved and O2 consumed for a given
period of respiration
Yawning is an indication of sleep. It is due to the accumulation of CO2 in the lungs and
change in the pH of blood.
19
EXCREATION
1.
Ornithine cycle is also called Kreb’s – Hensleit cycle. It occurs in the liver. Ammonia
combine with CO2 to form Urea and Water
MODE OF EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
1. Ammonotelism Excretion of Ammonia in the form of Ammonium hydroxide
Egs. Aquatic invertebrates, Bony fishes, Aquatic Amphibians
Tadpoles
2. Ureotelism
Excretion of Urea
Egs. Mammals, Frog, Cartilage fishes, Alligator, Turtle
3. Ureotelism
Excretion of Uric acid
Egs. Birds, Insects, Land snails, Land crustaceans
EXCRETORY ORGANS OF ANIMALS
1. Flame cells or Protonephridia
2. Rennette cells
3. Nephridia
4. Nephridia, Kidney
5. Organ of Bojanus
6. Green glands
7. Malpighian tubules
8. Nephrocytes and Fatbodies
9. Solenocytes
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Platyhelminthes. Planaria, Fasciola, Tapeworm
Round worm
Neries, Earthworm
Mollusca
Freshwater mussel
Prawn
Insects
Acessory excretory organs of Cockroach
Amphioxus
Tunica fibrosa is the outer covering of Kidney
Bladder and Ureter are lined with Transitional epithelium.
Cystitis is the inflammation of Urinary bladder.
PCT is located in the Cortex, Henle’s loop in the Medulla and DCT in the Cortex.
Duct of Bellini is the collecting duct that opens into the Pelvis.
Vasa recta is the blood vessels surrounding the Loop of Henle.
Glomerular filtrate is Protein free and cell free.
Glomerular blood pressure
Filtrate pressure
Osmotic pressure of plasma proteins
Net Filtration pressure
55 mm Hg
15 mm Hg
30 mm Hg
55 – ( 15 + 30 ) = 55 – 45 = 10 mm Hg
20
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Glomerular filtration rate or GFR is 125 ml / mt. That is 180 L per day.
High threshold substances
Actively absorbed in the PCT.
Egs. Glucose, Amino acids, Vitamins, K,Na, Ca
Low threshold substances
Less absorption. PCT allow to pass
Egs. Urea, Uric acis, Ammonia, Creatine, Ketone
bodies
Creatine and Sulphates are not absorbed.
PCT absorbs Glucose, Amino acids,Vit.C, Na, K, Ca, Water
Descending loop absorbs 5% water
Ascending limb is impermeable to water
DCT actively absorbs Na and Cl.
Augmentation is the tubular secretion. It an active process requires ATP.
K,H,NH3,Sulphur compounds, Uric acid, Creatinine, Penicillin etc ate eliminated.
Urinary bladder can store 500 ml urine.
Micturition is the passing of urine.
1 to 1.8 L urine is excreted per day.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL NATURE OF URINE
1. Specific gravity
2. pH
3. Urochrome
4. Dissolved substances
5. Inorganic salts
6. Other substances
1.001 – 1.040
6
Yellow pigment formed from Bilurubin. Urobile
Urea, Ammonia, Hippuric acid, Creatinine, Uric acid,
NaCl.
Chloride, Phosphates, Sulphates of K,Ca,Mg.
Vit.C, Oxalic acid, Phenolic substances.
ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE – DISEASES
1. Aneuria
2. Bright disease
3. Urethritis
4. Nephrolithiasis
5. Polyurea
6. Haematurea
7. Indicanuria
8. Albuminurea
9. Glycosuriia
Absence of urine formation.
Inflamation of kidney
Inflamation of urethra
Kidney stone
Excess urine formation
Blood in the urine
Potassium in the urine
Protein in the urine
Sugar in the urine
21
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Cystectomy is the surgical removal of Kidney.
Pyelolithotomy is the removal of stone from Pelvis.
Crystals of Calcium and Oxalate form Kidney stones.
In the Descending limb of Heles loop, urine is Hypertonic.
In the DCT, urine is Hypotonic.
Aldosterone from Adrenal cortex increases re absorption of Na and elimination of K.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus ( JGA ) operates Multi-Hormonal system called RAAS.
When BP in the afferent arteriole decreases, JGA secretes Renin. Renin convert plasma
protein Angiotensin to a peptide hormone Angiotensin II. It increases BP by constricting
glomerular arterioles. NaCl and Water absorption occurs in the PCT. This produces
Aldosterone. It re absorbs Na and K in the DCT.
ANTI NATRIURETIC FACTOR
ANF
It is a peptide hormone from the Atria of Heart. It opposes the action of RAAS. It is
secreted when BP increases. ANF inhibits re absorption of Water and NaCl by inhibiting
Aldosterone.
ADH, RAAS, ANF act as a Feed Back system.
Cellophane membrane is used in Hemodialisis.
Dialysing fluid is Isotonic to blood.
Cyclosporin is an Immunosuppressive drug used after Kidney transplantation to prevent
Kidney rejection.