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Biology Regular Study Guide
Exam Date- May 26, 2010
Presented ByJacob Helwig
What did Gregor Mendel conclude on how traits are inherited?
- What Mendel concluded is that traits were inherited by there parents. He decided that
some genes are more dominate to others and also the inherence follows the rule of
chance.
The closer two genes are in the chromosome the (more likely)(less likely) they will be
inherited together.
- Answer- The closer the two genes are together the MORE LIKELY they will be inherited.
The farther away two genes are in the chromosome the (more likely)(less likely) they will
be inherited together.
- Answer- The farther away the 2 genes are the LESS LIKELY they will be inherited
together.
In Mendel’s peas, what was
a. P generation – The first parents or the “true-breeding” Parents.
b. F1 generation – The children of the parents of the “hybrids”.
c. F2 generation – The children of the F1.
State Mendel’s Principle of Segregation:
- The 4 concepts
- A gene can exist in more then one form.
- Organisms inherit two alleles for each trait.
- When gametes are produced allele pairs separate leaving each cell with a single allele
for each trait.
- When two alleles of a pair are different, one is dominate and the other is recessive
- Example- The gene for seed color in pea plants exists in two forms. There is one form or
allele for yellow seed color (Y) and another for green seed color (y). In this example, the
allele for yellow seed color is dominant and the allele for green seed color is recessive.
When the alleles of a pair are different (heterozygous), the dominant allele trait is
expressed and the recessive allele trait is masked. Seeds with the genetic makeup of
(YY) or (Yy) are yellow, while seeds that are (yy) are green.
What do Punnett Squares and probability have in common?
-
What the two have in common is that Punnett squares are to predict the outcome of a
monohybrid cross. It shows all the possible outcomes and from there you can see the
probability in a fraction format.
Give examples of polygenic inheritance:
- When two or more genes affect a single character is called polygenic inheritance.
- Examples- Height and skin color
Study 16 square Punnet Square like the one on page 213 fig. 10-8.
Figure 10-8
A Punnett square predicts a 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 phenotypic ratio for the F 2 offspring
resulting from the dihybrid cross for seed shape and color.
-
How to use punnet square- Say you have two genotype, for example, Aa and aa.
You would first draw a "square". The square will consist of four boxes.
Put the first genotype (it doesn't matter which) and put it along the top. We'll use Aa here. So
place this just above the punnett square, horizontally.
Next, put aa down the left hand side, vertically, outside the box.
Now basically "multiply" the letters.
In the top most left hand box, you will multiply A by a to give Aa.
In the top most right hand box, you will multiply a by a to give aa.
In the bottom most left hand box, you will multiply A by a, to give Aa.
In the bottom most right hand box, you will multiply a by a, to give aa.
Now you can read your punnett square.
You can see that the letter combinations in the four boxes are half "Aa" and half "aa".
So, if two people, one with genotype Aa, and one with genotype aa, have children, there is a
50% chance of the child having genotype Aa, and a 50% chance of the child having genotype aa.
What would the F1 generation be when you cross two true-breeding plants (tall and short,
for example)? What alleles would F1 inherit?
- If you crossed two true breeding sort and tall plants you would come out with a tall
plant. One would be big R and so would the other (R).
- The alleles of the F1 would simply be RR because it was the only thing passed down.
Define a hybrid offspring.
- The offspring of two different true breeding varieties.
When will the recessive allele show up in the offspring?
- The recessive allele will normally show up in the F2 generation. The parents will
normally pass the gene onto the F1 generation but it will lie dormant until it is passed on
to the F2.
What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous?
- Homozygous- If the two alleles are SAME. (RR/rr)
- Heterozygous- If the two alleles are DIFFERENT. (Rr/rR)
- Difference is the alleles are either the same or different.
Why did Mendel remove the male part (stamen) of a flower when doing genetic crosses?
- The reason he cut off the stamens is because he wanted to prevent the flower from selffeudalizing.
Figure 10-2
Mendel cross-fertilized his plants by hand. This enabled him to control which plants would
serve as the "parents."
Study fig. 11-1 page 226.
Figure 11-1
Griffith showed that although a deadly strain of bacteria could be made harmless by
heating it, some factor in that strain is still able to change other harmless bacteria into
deadly ones. He called this the "transforming factor."
-
Simply this means that heat can kill bacteria. But all of it has to be heated to make it
non-deadly.
What did Avery’s experiments show? (page 227)
- First off Avery experiments were looking for the “transforming factor”. The transforming
factor is the factor that changes harmless bacteria to deadly ones. He first off looking at
protein and experimenting with it. Protein was not the factor. Then he started to mess
with the DNA. In the end he found DNA was the genetic material of the cell.
What are the nucleotides found in DNA?
- Nucleotide simply makes up DNA. So they are found in DNA and the Nucleus.
- They are made up of a ring shaped sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.
What does DNA replication result in?
- The DNA replication results in 2 new strands.
- One is the original and the other is a copy or “new” one.
What is the difference in bases between DNA and RNA?
DNA
RNA
-
Double Strand
-
Single Strand
-
Letters A,T,G,C
-
Letters A,U,G,C
-
Dioxiribos
-
Ribos
Study replication, transcription and translation.
- Replication- The process of copying the DNA molecule
-
Transcription- DNA’s nucleotide sequence is converted to the form of a single stranded
RNA molecule in transcription
Translation- converts nucleic language into amino acid language. Like English to
German.
Figure 11-12
Information flows from gene to polypeptide. First, a sequence of
nucleotides in DNA (a gene) is transcribed into RNA in the cell's
nucleus. Then the RNA travels to the cytoplasm where it is translated
into the specific amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.
(Three codons) make (One) amino acids.
What is the sugar in DNA? In RNA?
- Sugar in DNA- Dioxiribos
- Sugar in RNA- Ribos
Name the types of RNA involved in protein synthesis.
- Messenger RNA- RNA molecule transcribed from a DNA template.
- Transfer RNA- RNA that translates the 3 letter of mRNA to amino acids.
- Ribosomal RNA- RNA component of ribosome.
Figure 11-18
During translation, the ribosome adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain. The ribosome moves down the
transcript, codon by codon, until translation is completed.
Figure 11-19
Translation begins with the attachment of a ribosome and the first tRNA to a "start" (AUG)
codon. The ribosome then moves along the mRNA transcript. The polypeptide elongates as
an amino acid is added for each codon. When the ribosome arrives at a "stop" codon, the
completed polypeptide is released.
Which one is the “blueprint” of protein synthesis?
- Messenger RNA is described to be the blue print of protein synthesis.
Define geographic isolation.
- Geographic isolation- separation of populations as a result of geographic change or
migration to geographically isolated places.
Give examples of fossils
- Definition- preserved remains or marking left by an organism that lived in the past.
- Example- Skull in preserved from, imprints of ferns, footprints, and animal burrows.
In what type of rocks are fossils formed?
- The type of rock that fossils are formed in is called Sedimentary Rock. Other things like
insects ere sometime preserved in plant sap and some humans were preserved in ice.
Define adaptive radiation, convergent evolution, punctuated equilibrium.
- Adaptive radiation- evolution from a common ancestor of many species adapted to
diverse environments.
- Convergent evolution- process in which unrelated species from similar environments
have adaptations that seem very similar.
- Punctuated equilibrium- evolutionary model suggesting species often diverge in spurts
of relatively rapid change, following by a long period of no change.
Study fig. 1-7 on page 9 (What types of cells are the top two domains? The bottom four
domains? Give examples of each domain.
-
Top twoArchaea- Made of unicellular prokaryotic cells. (Halobacteria and Pyrolobus)
Bacteria- Made of unicellular prokaryotic cells. Also some multicellular organisms as
well.( Salmonella and E-coli)
- Bottom four- Protista, fungi, plants and animals are all Eukaryotic Multicellular cells.
- The bottom 4 examples should be simple.
- Algae, shrooms, tree and a dog.
Study Fig. 15-18 (oldest era to most recent era, and organisms that lived in those eras)
d. What is a Cambrian explosion? Burst of diverse animal species originating during
the Cambrian period.
e. When did reptiles appear? The reptiles started to appear in the Permian years
around 275 million BC.
Why is there rapid evolution of species after a mass extinction?
- The reason for rapid evolution is because certain species are killed off giving other
species the chance to strive due to less competition.
Read about homeotic genes on page 284-285. In what development stage of an organism
are these genes active?
- These genes are active during early stages of development. During the time of the genes
cross.
Study the classification system on page 342.
-
Figure 15-24
The leopard shares many characteristics with the lion—which belongs to the same genus—
but far fewer characteristics with snails, sponges, or earthworms, though they are all
members of the animal kingdom.
-
The main groups are Species, Genus, Family, Order, Class, Phylum, and kingdom in that
order.
Define a cladogram. What does it show?
- Cladogram- a phylogenetic diagram that specifies the derived characters of clades.
Figure 15-30
This cladogram shows how derived characters can be used to identify clades among
certain vertebrates (animals with backbones). All the species shown here share a
common ancestor that had a backbone. (Each clade is actually defined by several
derived characters, not just one.)
Study Invertebrates (including parasites – trichina worm)
10 Good facts about invertebrates
- 1. The term "invertebrate" refers to an informal collection of a very large number of
animals.
Although vertebrates all fall within a single taxonomic group, invertebrates occupy more
than 30 groups of animals. These include sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, molluscs,
arthropods, insects, segmented worms, and echinoderms as well as numerous minor phyla
such as brachiopods, arrow worms, bryozoans, hemichordates, peanut worms, rotifers,
water bears, ribbon worms, velvet worms, spoonworms, horseshoe worms and a handful of
others.
2. Invertebrates were the first animals to evolve.
The first animals had soft bodies and for this reason they left little fossil evidence of their
existence. Scientists have discovered fossilized burrows and tracks in sediments that date
back nearly 1 billion years. The oldest fossil of an invertebrate dates back to the late
Precambrian, about 600 million years ago.
3. The first invertebrates evolved from single-celled, food-eating microorganisms.
Scientists are still uncertain exactly how the first invertebrates evolved. Most experts agree
that the first invertebrates evolved from single-celled, food-eating microorganisms.
Scientists think that these microorganisms formed permanent symbiotic groups and in
doing so, they were no longer single-celled, they had become multicellular. When this
happened, animals had evolved.
4. Invertebrates are often most noted for what they lack: a backbone and a bony skeleton.
Invertebrates do not have bones, a bony skeleton, or a backbone. Instead, they gain
structural support for their bodies in different ways. For example, sea anemones have a
hydrostatic skeleton that produces support via sheets of muscles and an internal cavity
filled with fluid. Other invertebrates such as insects and crustaceans have a hard outer shell
or exoskeleton.
5. Invertebrates account for 97 percent of all known species.
An estimated 97% of all species are alive today are invertebrates. Of all invertebrates, the
insects are by far the most numerous. There are so many species of insects that scientists
have yet to discover them all, let alone name or count them. Estimates of the total number
of insect fall in the range of 1 to 30 million. There are also some 10,000 species of sponges,
9,000 species of cnidarians, 100,000 species of mollusks, and 75,000 species of arachnids in
addition to tens of thousands of species belonging to other lesser known groups.
6. The simplest invertebrates, in fact the simplest animals, are sponges.
Sponges are sessile animals that live in marine and freshwater habitats. Sponges feed by
siphoning water into their body and filtering out food particles. Water enters their body
through small pores ou their outer surface. The water then passes into a central cavity and
is expelled through a large opening called the osculum. Although the cells in the body of a
sponge perform specialized functions, they are not organized into true tissues or organs as
they are in other animals.
7. Most invertebrates change form as they grow, going through a process known as
metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis is a process by which organisms change form as they mature. Young are
sometimes very different from adult forms and may feed on different resources and inhabit
different niches. Metamorphosis can enable a species to disperse with greater ease at
certain times during its life cycle, find different food resources, or prepare for breeding. The
changes involved in metamorphosis are controlled by hormones and may proceed quickly
or gradually.
8. Some species of invertebrates form large colonies.
Colonies are groups of animals of the same species that remain together throughout most
of their life cycle. Members of a colony are often closely related and benefit from living
together by dividing up the work of obtaining food, protecting themselves, and reproducing.
Invertebrate colonies are most common in marine habitats where the members of the
colony are often physically joined. Marine invertebrate colonies include corals, hydrozoans,
Portuguese man-of-war, and sea squirts. Invertebrate colonies that occur on land have
individuals that are separated. The best known terrestrial colonial invertebrates are the
social insects—bees, ants, termites, and wasps.
9. Invertebrates will eat almost anything that was or is alive.
There are herbivores, carnivores, and detritivores in the invertebrate world. They go about
obtaining food in a multitude of ways. Some aquatic invertebrates such as sponges are filter
feeders while others such as starfish actively hunt prey. On land, spiders build elaborate
webs that snare their prey. Leaf-cutter ants slice and dice foliage from trees and cart it back
to their nest where they use it as fertilizer to grow great fungal gardens that feed their
colony.
10. Many of the world's parasites are invertebrates.
Ticks, tapeworms, leeches, and roundworms are just a few of the parasites in the animal
kingdom and all are invertebrates. Some parasites live on the external surfaces of their
hosts while others live in the digestive tract or tissues of their hosts. Parasites often go
through an elaborate series of steps in their life cycle during which time they may pass from
one to several other hosts.
(Look at Pages- 492 to about page 574)
Why do you think filter-feeders, like clams and oysters are important in environmental
health investigations?
- The reason they are important to environmental health investigations is because they
are extremely health and can filter the good stuff and bad stuff and tell what is good
and bad.
What invertebrates are deuterostomes?
- Some examples of there are sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins.
Describe a rotifer (page 505)
- They are very tiny organisms. They have a unique crown of cilia. Means “wheel-bearer”.
- In the end they have a whirlpool like thing in there mouth that makes them rotate this
like a wheel.
How are the larvae of a tunicate and the adult tunicate similar?
- They are similar in the way they till feed off of small organic partials and have
pharyngeal slits.
- The difference between the two is when its young it swims around and when its older it
does not move.
Do all salamanders that live on land have lungs?
- No. Some do not develop lungs and still keep there slits.
Why do snakes flick their tongue in the air?
- They do this to “taste the air”. They use there Jacobson organ to help detect things.
How can snakes detect small animals in the darkness?
-
They simply either can use heat seeking pits on there head or also “taste the air” with
there tongue.
Study Fig. 26-1 on page 560.
Figure 26-1
This diagram shows a cross section of a generalized
amniotic egg. The shell encloses the embryo and four
specialized membranes that form during the embryo's
development.
- Know all parts of this. The last exam had the whole thing on it….
Study all figures found on this semester exams.
- Good idea Mrs. Yanez
Study the chapters on fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
- Too much info to put.
- Look at pages 540 to about 601
- Good luck on the exam!
Wazinger is doing his review game in the mornings at 7 and after school until
Wednesday. He gives you questions and answers to exam questions!!!