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Evolution of Roman Society I. Power Dynamic a. People who have power (In Rome) i. Rich Aristocracy (Nobility…Roman Patricians) ii. Serve in the Senate 1. To give power to the senate means giving power to the Rich Aristocracy iii. Optimates: 1. People in the Roman Senate who want to keep power in the senate with the rich aristocracy. 2. Reason: Rich Nobles have the education and experience running large operations and businesses. They can use this experience to run a large government like Rome. b. People who want power (In Rome) i. Non Aristocratic Citizens from the Assembly 1. Small Farmers who owned land 2. Poor landless citizens ii. Non Citizens (Allies of Rome in Italy) iii. Populares: 1. People in the Roman Senate who want to give power to those who do not have it to gain popularity. 2. They advocate a. giving power to run Rome to the Assembly b. giving citizenship to the entire boot of Italy. iv. Reason: Most of the citizens are in the assembly of Rome, and they should have a say in how they are governed. c. One side will blame the policies of the other for the problems in the Roman Republic. II. The Reform of the Roman Army a. The demands of empire created the need for a standing army and for a professional corps of officers. i. Traditionally, the Romans employed a citizen militia. The right to vote was tied with the responsibility to serve in the army. This militia had conquered the Mediterranean world. To conquer is one thing, to hold is another. The core of the army was the peasant farmer but such individuals could not afford to remain in continuous service. There was however a large number of property-less Roman citizens who, though not liable for service, might be so employed. 1. Marius, to meet the dangers of the German advance in 104, enrolled these proletarians and they continued to be used thereafter. 2. Problems a. These men had nothing to lose; were prepared for revolution. b. As professional soldiers, they demanded both salary and bonus after service. They were dependent on commander to achieve it. c. This professional army increasingly owed its allegiance to its commander and not to the state. b. Need for an experienced corps of commanders i. Traditionally a dilemma for Romans as military leaders achieved that rank by being elected to office. Many disasters. Dictatorship no longer possible; appointment of a commander extra ordinem. ii. The Constitutional Problem of the extraordinary command 1. The position was outside the constitution and had no normal constraints on behavior. 2. In fact, the office was usually given be the assemblies in defiance of the wishes of the senate (the senate traditionally had the responsibility for assigned "provinces" and commands). c. In sum, the combination of the extra-ordinary commander and the new professional army and the dynamic patronal relationship between the two constituted an important ingredient in the civil wars of the period. III. The Italian Question: The incorporation of Rome and Italy politically was an important step in the transition from city-state to world-state; ultimately it generated a state that transcended linguistic and cultural differences. a. Background i. Italy consisted of a numerous communities (urban plus supporting rural areas). Some of these communities enjoyed full Roman citizenship, others had a half citizenship called theius Latinum or "the rights of Latins" (important commercial, connubial and residential rights but not suffrage), a third group had only allied status ius Italicum. The latter were nominally independent states, but owed military service for the common defense. The situation in 133: 1. Allies provide troops but not taxed; autonomous except in foreign policy. 2. Provinces consist of subject allies who are taxed and autonomous in all but foreign affairs and usually did not provide troops. Increasing number of Romans and Italians (veterans) settle and form communities of citizens with no official status. ii. Rome had conquered the Mediterranean world both with her own and with Italian citizen militias. The latter had fought willingly enough against external enemies (Carthage), but now the acquisition of empire seemed to benefit only Rome; they had shared the dangers, but were denied the profits. iii. Allies complained of the increasing arrogant behavior of magistrates. b. Gracchus had proposed to extend Roman citizenship to all with the Latin right and to give the Latin right to all Italians. This was a sensible solution and eventually the one that was adopted. c. The problem was aggravated by the unfulfilled promises of the populares. Bills had been proposed and defeated in 125, 122, and 91. d. Opposition i. There was legitimate concern about whether Rome could absorb so many at one time (it would double her citizen body) and retain her identity. ii. Urban population opposed because it perceived that it would mean a dilution of benefits they increasing enjoyed through the largesse of the populares. iii. The optimates opposed because they feared the disruption of the traditional system; one man would acquire too great a clientele and threaten the constitution (and their privileged position). e. Resolution: Bear in mind that the Romans did have a generous tradition on citizenship. i. Social War fought between 90 and 88. The oath of the allies; Italian bull gores Roman wolf ii. Rome wins by selectively distributing citizenship to some of the Italians and breaking the strength of the movement. iii. Note that the Italians created a constitution modeled after that of Rome...they were ready to be absorbed. iv. The internal problems were overcome by allowing a number of magistrates to sponsor the necessary legislation, thus diluting the danger of excessive clientele. f. The effects: census data: citizens in 115 = 395,000; 96 = 470,000; 81 = 910,000 IV. Enfranchisement --the theory. Incorporation by communities was the usual method a. It violated the ancient concept of the autonomous city-state.. b. The basis of municipal life was the charter that spelled out the powers of the community but always allows for appeal to Rome. The charter was fairly standard. (RC I, p.445ff.) c. The crucial principle is the notion of dual citizenship. d. How the concepts of Status and Rank were used in this case. The more Romanized a community was the easier and less expensive it was to govern. Hence, the Romans provided incentives for subjects to become Romans and to move up the scale. i. Capitulant: lowest status, after conquest; no individual or community rights ii. Ally: dependant subject state iii. Latin right: half citizenship iv. Municipium: full citizenship v. Colony: full citizenship but more prestige.