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Rome
264 – 133 BC
Terminology:
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Plebeians: common folk of Rome.
Patricians: wealthy land owners of Rome.
Democratic: rule by the people.
Aristocratic: rule by the powerful and reliance
of hereditary handing on of power.
• Oligarchy: rule by groups and cliques loyal to
each other.
Government in 264 BC
• Roman government in 264 BC was a mixture
of:
• Democratic,
• Aristocratic,
• And oligarchic elements.
• This had come about because the people
(plebeians) had demanded greater political
participation after their assistance in Rome’s
wars of expansion.
The struggle for orders
• The struggle for orders in Rome was the
struggle by the plebeians (people) to have
political and social equality with the patricians
(landowners).
• This created the mix of democracy (people)
and oligarchy (landowners) in the Senate.
Division of Powers
• The Senate was composed of magistrates, a
dictator, censors, people’s assemblies and
tribunes.
• Magistrates:
• These were officials and administrators.
• They were sourced from the patricians and
wealthy plebeians.
Division of Powers
• The magistrates were ordered as follows:
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2 Consuls: They commanded the army.
8 Praetors: Judges which decided law suits.
4 Aediles: Administrators of Roman city-state.
12 Quaestors: Financial administrators.
These were 1 year (12 month) appointments.
Magistrate Careers
• Cursus honorum – these positions made up
the ladder of promotion which Roman leaders
followed.
• Collegiate Principle – these offices also used
the collegiate principle, whereby there where
at least two people working in each role at
once.
Dictator
• This was a single person role.
• Dictators were only elected during an
emergency, such as when Hannibal invaded
Italy.
• Dictators were given the task of co-ordinating
the state in that time of crisis.
Censors
• Two appointed at a time.
• Their role was to assign citizens to social
positions.
• These positions were based on property
qualifications – how much land you owned.
People’s assemblies
• These originated in 287 BC, when the
plebeians withdrew their support from the
army because of inequalities.
• The dictator Hortensius allowed them greater
participation in politics.
• These were then known as the Hortensian
Laws.
People’s assemblies
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Two in existence:
1. Comitia centuriata
Dominated by wealthy class,
Power to make war and agree on terms for
peace,
• Elected some magistrates.
Tribunes of the people
• Office of Tribune was created as result of
struggle for orders – the plebeians wanting
more equality.
• 10 appointed at a time.
Tribunes of the people
• Roles:
• Defend lives and property of the plebeians;
• Veto laws and actions of magistrates if
needed;
• Restrictions:
• All 10 Tribunes had to agree when making
decisions (unanimous decisions).
Tribunes of the people
• 2. Comitia tributa
• Democratic membership from the people,
• Made laws sometimes without senate
approval.
• Elected plebeian tribunes.
Summary
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Summary
Division of powers in Rome at 264 BC:
Senate
Magistrates
Dictator (if needed)
Censors
People’s assemblies
Tribunes of the people
The Constitution
• Established in 264 BC.
• A set of practices rather than a written
document.
• Allowed the plebeians to have the rights of
equality theta they desired in the struggle of
the orders.
• This was needed because the plebeians often
had to leave their farms and fight for Rome as
it expanded.
The Constitution
• They made the sacrifices in war that made
their demands real.
• The plebeians threatened to revolt against
their commanding officers if they did not get
more rights.
Plebeians
• The plebeians were able, after getting greater
rights, to:
• Elect their own tribunes.
• Intermarry with patricians.
• Hold some religious offices.
• Make laws in the comitia tributa.
Reminder
• Assessment on Hannibal due by
Friday.
Rise of the urban population
• After the First Punic War Rome became a
major centre.
• It had a large slave population.
• It was also a major trading center and
marketplace.
• Many rural peasants also moved to Rome in
search of work and wealth.
• Hence Rome’s population swelled.
Rise of the urban population
• A wealthy business class rose up in Rome after
these developments.
• Publicans developed, who were private
contractors for building and development.
• Money-lending and banking also developed as a
business.
• Shipping of goods also became a profitbale
business.
• Most manufacture was for local consumption.
The Equestrians
• This was a social group composed of wealthy
businessmen who were known for their horse
ownership.
• They were ranked between the oligarchs of
the senate, and the working population.
• During wars they were assigned to the cavalry
by the censors.
• They invested heavily in land.
The Equestrians
• They were usually apolitical (which means
they stayed out of politics) unless their
business interests were under threat.
• Although they were wealthy they had little
influence in Rome’s politics because they did
not have family prestige.
Extortion Court
• As Rome expanded it included many more
provinces.
• These provinces had to be controlled and
administered.
• Tax, troops and trade all had to be sourced from
provinces.
• Provinces also had to reflect the legal and social
culture of Rome.
• Therefore, the Senate appointed governor's to
oversee these provinces.
Extortion Court
• Governor’s were open to corruption and
accusations of hardship from their citizens.
• To address this the Senate established the
Extortion court.
• When a governor returned to Rome, the Court
would examine his accounts; his claims for
military exploits; his trade arrangements.
• The Court was established in 149 BC.
Extortion Court
• If the citizens of a province felt they were
being exploited by their governor they would
approach the Senate and the Court.
• Citizens could use the Court to appeal for
damages.
Extortion Court
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Structure of the Court:
Fifty jurors elected from the Senate
Headed by a Praetor
No appeal above the Court
Led to the creation of new provinces because
the Senate believed that they would run more
smoothly with the Court in place
Extortion Court
• Problems with the Court:
• Costs of long trials,
• Difficult to secure testimony as many witnesses
were reluctant to come forward,
• Penalties difficult to enforce, as they were mostly
demands to repay provinces and this could not be
done,
• Court officials were penalising their own, which
meant that impartiality was lacking.
Extortion Court
• The practical failure of the Court meant that
for many years Roman provinces suffered
from exploitation by:
• Governors AND
• Tax collectors.
Extortion Court
• Your task:
• Begin summarising your handout booklet by
Boak and Sinnigen: A History of Rome
The Latifundia (Great estates)
• As the Roman Empire expanded there were
changes in economic and agricultural life.
• Great Estates arose which were operated by
slave labour.
• This also resulted from a decline in free
peasantry in Rome, who were more expensive
to pay; and who moved to cities such as Rome
for work.
The Latifundia (Great estates)
• The great estates were large farms.
• They arose because of the following:
• The owners of small farms had increased military
commitments.
• Owners of small farms moved to the cities to seek
wealth.
• Cheaper slave labour became more available.
• Hannibal’s armies devastated the countryside and
pushed small landowners out.
The Latifundia (Great estates)
• Rome gave public land to private citizens as it
expanded.
• Occupants would farm this land and pay rent to
Rome.
• Effects of Hannibal’s invasion on land:
• He had destroyed around 400 communities;
• The land they had lived on was left un-owned and
depopulated.
• Also, the Romans confiscated the land of his
allies.
The Latifundia (Great estates)
• The Senatorial class invested in land because
contracting and banking were not seen as
worthy occupations.
• More land became available to them as the
conquests were successful.
• The governing class also bought up small
farms to add to their large landholdings.
The Latifundia (Great estates)
• Changes in agriculture and farming:
• Grain was farmed less and less because it
could be bought from overseas colonies, and
because it damaged the soil.
• Vineyards; olive groves and market gardens
and grazing land became referred farming.
• Farming became more businesslike and was
designed for a market rather than private
consumption.
The Latifundia (Great estates)
• Slaves
• Wealthy land proprietors owned many farms
across Italy.
• Slaves made labour very cheap.
• Slaves could not be called up for military
service.
• Slaves could not claim legal rights when
treated poorly.
The Latifundia (Great estates)
• Slaves…
• Rome’s victories flooded the Mediterranean
with slaves.
• Between 200 and 150 BC: 250,000 slaves were
brought (prisoners of wars) to Italy.
• Slaves often worked in chains and lived in
prison barracks at night.
Your task:
• Summarise Booklet, pages 154 –
157.
Decline of the Free Peasantry
• As the Latifundia (great estates) grew the
peasantry declined.
• Rich landowners bought, bullied and coerced
small farmers out of their land.
• Foreign wars were also a burden on the
peasantry, as they were conscripted into the
army.
• Roman armies were mainly recruited from the
rural population.
Decline of the Free Peasantry
• Once in the army soldiers would be away from
their for a long time, perhaps several years at a
time.
• This meant he was unable to look after his
finances and land.
• Many returning soldiers sold their land to rich
landowners to pay debts, or because the farm
was not profitable.
• Many returning soldiers also migrated to Rome or
other cities were work was plentiful.
Decline of the Free Peasantry
• Other returning soldiers migrated to newly
conquered lands where they had won land as
part of their payment for fighting.
• The Tribunes attempted at various times to
save the peasants from the army draft, but
were not successful in the long run.
• As Rome expanded it needed more troops to
remain in conquered lands;
• Also, the army became a career in itself.
Decline of the Free Peasantry
• The effects of the great estates (latifundia) on
Roman society did not go unnoticed by the
Senate.
• They brought in laws to limit land ownership
to small portions (310 acre according to Livy).
• These laws were often difficult to enforce,
• Wealthy landowners often did not obey them.
• Once occupied, land became a hereditary
possession (handed down to children).
Your task:
• Summarise Booklet, pages 157 –
158.
Changes to the Magistracies
• Magistrates and elections:
• Magistrates could reject the candidate of an
election if he did not approve with him or his
policies.
• Magistrates were used by Senators, as
senators could not own ships or engage in
public contracts. Magistrates could help them
to influence the public through other means.
Changes to the Magistracies
• Magistrates in the provinces:
• At first provinces such as Sicily, Corsica and
Sardinia were ruled by regular magistrates.
• This proved ineffective, and so special
magistrates were assigned to these areas.
• Two extra Praetors were elected each year for
this reason.
Changes to the Magistracies
• Changes needed in the Magistrates because
they were designed to handle city
administration;
• But they were not well appointed to dealing
with imperial administration over a large
empire.
Changes to the Magistracies
• Praetor’s Edict:
• Annually elected Magistrates issued laws each
year.
• Each year an elected Magistrate (called the
Praetor) published the principles which he
would enforce, and the grounds needed by
people for grievances.
Changes to the Magistracies
• Each Praetor’s edicts were valid for the year
he was in office.
• However, most incoming Praetor’s carried on
the principles set by his predecessor, so
precedent was adhered to.
• As the city of Rome expanded, two large
basilicas (public halls) were constructed for
the use of Magistrates.
Roman basilica
Roman basilica
Your task:
• Conduct further research on the
Magistrates and how their role
changed during 264-133 BC.