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Ancient Rome THE FOUNDING OF ROME • The Latins, an IndoEuropean-speaking Italic people from central Europe, crossed the Alps about 1500 B.C. and invaded Italy. • Attracted by the warm climate and fertile land, the Latins conquered the native peoples and settled in central Italy. •On the seven hills overlooking the Tiber River, they founded the city of Rome. Romulus and Remus • About a year before the twins were born their great-uncle had seized power from their grandfather. • When the new king learned of the twins' birth, he ordered them thrown into the Tiber River, fearing that they would grow up to threaten his rule. • A shepherd discovered the twins, he took them home and raised them as his own sons. • When Romulus and Remus grew up, they took revenge on their great-uncle and restored their grandfather to his throne. •Then, on the seven hills overlooking the Tiber River, the two young men founded the city of Rome. the Aeneid • Years later, when Romans encountered the older, more sophisticated cultures of the eastern Mediterranean, the story of Romulus and Remus seemed pale when compared to the heroic Greek tales of the Trojan War. • So the Roman poet Virgil created a new legend. • Tells the story of valiant Trojan hero Aeneas . • He founded the colony of Rome • His descendants, Romulus and Remus,later took over. The Aeneid 2 • The story of Romulus and Remus said that strength, justice, and the favor of the gods were the best protection against danger and greed. • The Aeneid linked Rome to the older civilizations of Greece and Asia Minor. • This assured Romans that they were not mere newcomers to the Mediterranean world. Roman Beginnings • Rome was only a small town on the west coast of Italy when Athens flourished. • By 323 B.C., however, when Alexander the Great had conquered his empire, Rome was emerging as a strong city-state. • Between 265 B.C. and 44 B.C., Rome won control of the Mediterranean world, uniting many different peoples and regions under its rule. GEOGRAPHIC SETTING of Ancient Rome • • • • • The Italian peninsula juts out like a boot into the Mediterranean Sea. Off the toe of the boot lies the island of Sicily. The sea provided some protection for the early peoples of Italy. Later, the Romans used the sea as a highway for conquest and trade. At the top of the boot are the Alps, which block cold winds and give the region a pleasant climate. – However, the Alps give only limited protection from invaders. • The Po River, which is fed by melting snows from the Alps, provides water for the rich farming region of the northern plain. • Another mountain range, the Apennines (AP uh NiNZ), runs down the length of Italy. • Unlike the mountains in Greece, which isolated the city-states, the Apennines were a less serious barrier to unity in Italy. • Most people lived in the west, where the land was more fertile than in the east. • In the wet there were also good harbors and long rivers that be easily navigated by small boats. Geography 2 • Another mountain range, the Apennines (AP uh NiNZ), runs down the length of Italy. • Unlike the mountains in Greece, which isolated the city-states, the Apennines were a less serious barrier to unity in Italy. • Most people lived in the west, where the land was more fertile than in the east. • In the wet there were also good harbors and long rivers that be easily navigated by small boats. Geography 2 • The city of Rome enjoyed many natural advantages. It was located on the fertile coastal plain halfway up Italy's west coast. • From the seven hills overlooking the Tiber River, Romans could watch for enemy attacks. • The Tiber provided food and transportation. Since Rome lay some distance inland, it was not exposed to raids from the sea. • Romans built the port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber for ships too large to move up the river Early Peoples of Rome (Latins) • The early Latins, a simple and hardy people, • (1) worked chiefly at farming and cattle-raising; • (2) maintained close family ties, with the father exercising absolute authority; • (3) worshipped tribal gods (Jupiter, the chief god; Mars, god of war; Neptune, god of the sea; and Venus, goddess of love), and • (4) defended Rome against frequent attacks. • The Latins who founded Rome were farmers and herders. • During their early history, they fought with other Latins for control of neighboring areas. • Their struggles helped shape a belief in duty, discipline, and patriotism. Early People of Rome (Etruscans) • The Etruscans (ih TRUHS kuhnz), who had migrated into Italy from Asia Minor, seized Rome about 600 B.C. • During the next 100 years, the Romans absorbed many ideas from their Etruscan conquerors. • They adopted the Etruscan alphabet, which the Etruscans had borrowed from the Greeks. • They copied Etruscan styles of art and worshipped Etruscan gods alongside their own. • And they learned Etruscan building techniques, including the arch. Greeks and Phoenicians • At the same time the Romans learned from advanced civilizations of the Phoenicians and Greeks, who had set up colonies in Sicily and Italy. • For example, from the Greeks, the Romans learned to build fortified cities and to grow grapes and olives. ROME: FROM ETRUSCAN RULE TO INDEPENDENCE (750–500 B.C.) • Rome was captured about 750 B.C. by its northern neighbors, the Etruscans. From these more advanced people, the Latins, or Romans, learned to • (1) construct buildings, roads, and city walls, • (2) make metal weapons, and • (3) apply new military tactics. The Romans in 500 B.c. drove out the Etruscans and established an independent republic. THE EARLY REPUBLIC: AN ARISTOCRACY • The Roman Republic at first was an aristocracy, with power in the hands of the wealthy landowning nobles, the patricians. • Only they could serve • as consuls (heads of state) ) and as members of the hereditary legislative Senate, which passed laws, approved appointments and controlled foreign affairs. • Largely excluded from government were the rest of the Roman people, mainly small farmers and city workers, known as plebeians. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC BECOMES MORE DEMOCRATIC (5TH–3RD CENTURIES B.C.) • The plebeians clamored for democratic reforms. Over the course of two centuries, they gained the right to • (1) elect tribunes empowered to veto (forbid) actions of the consuls and the Senate, • (2) enact laws in the people's assemblies, and • (3) hold all government offices, including those of consul and senator. Roman Republic • The plebeians' demands also resulted in codification (arranging and writing down) of Roman law into the Twelve Tables. This prevented judges—who were nobles—from twisting unwritten laws to favor their own class. Each had the right to veto, or block, an action of the other. • In Latin, the word "veto" means "I forbid." • The Romans achieved these reforms rather harmoniously, because both the patricians and the plebeians willingly compromised their differences for the good of the Republic. Twelve Tables 450 BC TABLE I Procedure: for courts and trials TABLE II Trials, continued. TABLE III Debt TABLE IV Rights of fathers (paterfamilias) over the family TABLE V Legal guardianship and inheritance laws TABLE VI Acquisition and possession TABLE VII Land rights TABLE VIII Torts and delicts (Laws of injury) TABLE IX Public law TABLE X Sacred law TABLE XI Supplement I TABLE XII Supplement II In 450 B.C., Rome's first written law code was carved onto 12 stone tablets that were set up in the Forum, or central marketplace. The Twelve Tables of Law showed the strict separation between patricians and plebeians. Laws prohibited plebeians from serving as consuls, entering the Senate, or marrying patricians. Yet by listing laws and punishments, the Twelve Tables protected all citizens from unfair treatment. ROME GAINS CONTROL OF ITALY (340–270 B.C.) • In a series of wars Rome conquered the Italian peninsula. The Romans (1) in central Italy, overwhelmed the other Latins as well as the Samnites and Etruscans, (2) in northern Italy, drove back the Gauls, and (3) in southern Italy, captured the Greek colonies. Rome conquers Italy Rome succeeded in conquering and uniting Italy because of its: • Powerful Armies. Roman citizen-soldiers felt deeply responsible to their Republic. They fought not for a despot but for their own freedom, land, and government. Well-trained and strictly disciplined, the Roman legions were the ancient world's most effective fighting force. • Ability to Move Troops. The Apennine Mountains, running north and south through Italy, did not obstruct Roman troop movements appreciably. • Wise Treatment of Conquered Peoples. The Romans secured the friendship and allegiance of the conquered peoples by granting them the privileges of either partial or full Roman citizenship. From these allies Rome received troops and support for its foreign policy. Punic Wars • The First Punic War (264–241 B.c.). Fighting chiefly on the island of Sicily and in the Mediterranean Sea, Rome's citizensoldiers eventually defeated Carthage's mercenaries (hired foreign soldiers). Rome annexed Sicily and then Sardinia and Corsica. The Second Punic War (218–201 B.c.). Hannibal, Carthage's great general, led an army from Spain across the Alps and into Italy. At first he won numerous victories. However, he was unable to seize the city of Rome. Gradually the tide of battle turned in favor of Rome.. Rome annexed Carthage's Spanish provinces and reduced Carthage to a second-rate power. • – • Reasons for Rome's victory: (a) superior wealth and military power, (b) the loyalty of most of its allies, and (c) the rise of capable generals, notably Fabius and Scipio. Scipio was named Africanus because he triumphed over Hannibal in North Africa. The Third Punic War (149–146 B.c.). Some Romans believed that Carthage remained a threat. Rome finally attacked Carthage, destroyed the city, and annexed the territory. Roman Army • At first, only patricians served in the Roman army. But the Republic faced many enemies, including the Etruscans, neighboring Latins, and the Gauls who lived north of the Po River. After the Gauls burned Rome in 390 B.C., the Senate turned to the plebeians for help. It required all citizens who owned land—plebeians and patricians—to serve in the army. • Roman soldiers trained in the use of slings, javelins, spears, and swords. Wealthy Romans provided their own equipment and served without pay. Poorer citizens received small salaries. Roman commanders enforced strict discipline. Such training and discipline made the Roman army highly effective. • The Roman army was divided into legions of about 6,000 soldiers. Each legion was divided into smaller units that could be moved around swiftly. This freedom of movement gave the Roman army an advantage over the massed ranks of its enemies. ROME CONQUERS THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN (BY THE 1ST CENTURY B.C.) • After the Second Punic War, Rome conquered (1) Macedonia, including Greece, and • (2) Syria, including most of southwestern Asia. Egypt, recognizing • Rome's might, submitted to Roman domination of the eastern Mediterranean. In • 30 B.C. Rome annexed Egypt. Rome was now master of the entire Mediterranean world. THE MEDITERRANEAN CONQUESTS AFFECT ROME • 1. Conquests Introduce Greek Culture. The Romans enthusiastically accepted the advanced Hellenistic culture of the eastern Mediterranean (see pages 50-51). They (a) shipped Greek treasures—books, statues, and vases—to Rome, (b) enslaved educated Greeks to serve as tutors, actors, writers, and scientists, and (c) imitated Greek culture extensively. Roman arms conquered Greece, but Greek culture conquered Rome. • Conquests Bring Wealth to Some Romans. (a) Nobles cheaply acquired huge estates in the provinces and in Italy. They often seized public lands illegally. (b) Merchants and business people prospered by filling army contracts, buying booty, supplying slaves, and trading with the provinces. (c) Government officials in the provinces amassed huge fortunes at the expense of their subject peoples. • These wealthy classes enjoyed lives of ease and luxury. Hard work, discipline, and patriotism—early Roman virtues—disappeared. THE MEDITERRANEAN CONQUESTS AFFECT ROME 2 • Conquests Ruin Small Farmers and Workers. Small farmers and city workers could not compete with slave labor employed by huge estates and in industry. Unable to pay their debts, farmers abandoned their lands and migrated to the cities; city workers suffered serious unemployment. – To gain the support of landless farmers and unemployed workers, Roman politicians sponsored free government programs of bread and circuses (food and entertainment). • Conquests Change the Character of the Army. The small farmer had been the backbone of the Roman army. As he disappeared, the nature of the army changed. Citizen-soldiers, loyal to the state, were replaced by professional soldiers, fighting for pay and booty, loyal to their own commanders. FROM REPUBLIC TO DICTATORSHIP • By the 2nd century B.C., the common people were again demanding economic and political reforms. • The aristocracy, controlling the Senate, bitterly opposed measures that threatened their wealth and power. • Since the spirit of compromise of the early Republic was dead, peaceful reform failed. In a series of civil wars, rival Roman generals battled for supremacy. • The entire conflict, lasting more than 100 years, wrecked the Roman Republic and its many democratic features. • In 27 B.C. the Republic was replaced by an absolute monarchy, the Roman Empire. First Triumvirate • One general, Pompey (PAHM Pee), led his legions in a series of successful campaigns in Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine. However, when he returned to Rome and the Senate and looked for allies. He found one in a talented young general, Julius Caesar. • Caesar had won victories in Spain and had attracted a large following in Rome. Like Pompey, Caesar resented the Senate. In 61 B.C., he had hoped to be elected consul, but the Senate, fearing his popularity, blocked his bid for power. In 60 B.C., Caesar and Pompey formed an alliance with Marcus Lucius Crassus, a wealthy general. They agreed to pool their re-sources and rule Rome together. Their alliance is known as the First Triumvirate (tri UHM ver iht), or three-man commission. The First Triumvirate gained control of Rome but was soon split by rivalries. Julius Caesar rules Rome • Between 49 B.C. and 44 B.C., Caesar won a string of victories in the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. On his triumphant return to Rome, he pardoned many senators who had sup-ported Pompey. In 44 B.C., he was appointed , dictator for life. • Caesar introduced reforms meant to strengthen Rome and protect his own power. 1. He distributed land to the poor and granted Roman citizenship to people in provinces out-side Italy. – This action helped unite the empire by giving people in the provinces a stake in Rome. 2. 3. 4. 5. • • To reduce unemployment, he began many building projects. He increased pay for soldiers and moved to end corruption in the provinces. He also introduced a more accurate calendar based on Hellenistic astronomy. The Julian calendar, as it was called, was used in Europe until 1582 A.D. Although the Senate and Assembly of Tribes continued to exist, Caesar had absolute power. Death of Caesar • Opposition to Caesar grew in the Senate. • Some senators denounced him as a tyrant while others were jealous of his popularity. • On March 15, 44 B.C., a group of conspirators led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus stabbed Caesar to death in the Senate. • A farsighted leader, Caesar planned to establish stable government, reform provincial rule, provide land for the poor, and beautify the city of Rome. • But he lacked time. In 44 B.C. a group of conspirators, some envying his power and others hoping to restore the Republic, assassinated Caesar. • In the civil war that followed, the Republic suffered a fatal blow. The Second Triumvirate • Before his death, Caesar had adopted his 18-year-old grandnephew Octavian as his son and heir. • After Caesar's assassination, Octavian formed the Second Triumvirate with two of Caesar's chief commanders, Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus. • After crushing Caesar's assassins, the Second Triumvirate dissolved into a power struggle between Antony and Octavian. • When Antony married Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, Octavian feared they planned to seize power. Octavian defeated them. • Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt. They later committed suicide when The Age of Augustus • On his return to Rome, Octavian promised to share control of the empire with the Senate. In practice, however, he had absolute authority. • In 27 B.C., the Senate, realizing that peace depended on his leadership, gave Octavian the title Augustus, or "Exalted One," a name normally reserved for the gods. • After 100 years of civil war, peace was finally restored under • Under Augustus, Rome ceased to be a republic and became an empire. • The Senate gave him the title imperator ([HM puh RAHT uhr), or commander-in-chief of the Roman armies. • The English word "emperor" is derived from this Latin title. • Although the Senate still existed, Augustus ruled as a monarch. The Age of Augustus • 1. 2. 3. 4. Between 27 B.C. and 14 A.D., Augustus sponsored many reforms to strengthen the empire. He reorganized the army into a highly disciplined, professional body, loyal to the emperor. He encouraged former soldiers to settle in the provinces, where they could bolster local defense. He developed public works programs to build infrastructure and culture He developed an efficient civil service system 1. high level jobs were open to people with the best qualifications regardless of social class 2. civil servants were given salaries 5. He continued Caesar's policy of granting Roman citizenship to people in the provinces. Such measures ensured the loyalty of these people to Rome and spread Roman ideas. THE ROMAN EMPIRE: A DICTATORSHIP (27 B.C.–476 A.D.) The Roman Empire, existing about 500 years, was a military dictatorship. Of the many Roman emperors, some dominated the army; others were its puppets. Some devoted themselves to the Empire's welfare; others sought personal advantages. However, only a few were qualified to meet imperial problems. • The outstanding Roman emperors were:. • Claudius (41–54 A.D.) established Roman authority in the southern part of Britain. In Italy he promoted public works. • Vespasian (69–79 A.D.) dispatched an army, led by his son Titus, to Palestine. Titus suppressed a Hebrew revolt, destroyed Jerusalem, and expelled most Jews from Palestine. • Trajan (98–117 A.D.), through conquest, expanded the Empire to its greatest territorial extent. His most important acquisition was Dacia (modern Rumania). He wads a Spaniard • Hadrian (117–138 A.D.), to repel barbarian tribes seeking to enter the Empire, built defensive walls in northern Britain and central Europe. Tireless worker. Issued laws to protect women and children, and mistreatment of slaves. More Roman Emperors • • • • Marcus Aurelius (161–180 A.D.) was a conscientious and high-minded ruler concerned with the people's welfare. He was also a Stoic philosopher who wrote the famous book, Meditations. He led troops and conquered a large part of the Germanic tribes in the area of Germania. His death marked the end of the Pax Romana. Diocletian (284–305 A.D.) became emperor after a period of incompetent rule and internal strife. To simplify government, he divided the Empire into East and West—each portion administered separately. To prevent civil war, he established a system of succession to the throne. Nevertheless, his death led to renewed civil wars. Diocletian was the last Roman emperor who actively persecuted Christians. Constantine (312–337 A.D.) reunited the Empire by military force and moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium). By the Edict of Milan (313 A.D.), he ended the persecution of Christians. Just before his death, Constantine himself was converted to Christianity. Justinian, Roman emperor at Constantinople (527–565 A.D.), directed jurists to codify these laws. The Justinian Code influenced the legal systems of western Europe and, less directly, the United States. • Roman law was intended to be impartial and humane. Two of its principles were: (a) All persons are equal before the law. (b) Accused persons are guaranteed legal protection. For example, forced confessions are invalid. BARBARIC TRIBES DESTROY THE ROMAN EMPIRE • • • • • Germanic (Teutonic) Tribes Exert Pressure (1st–4th Centuries A.D.). Germanic, or Teutonic, tribes—primitive, warlike peoples—lived in central and eastern Europe. They were attracted to the Roman Empire by its fertile land, great wealth, and advanced civilization. Early Germanic efforts to enter the Empire were thwarted by Roman troops. Later, Rome permitted some Germanic peoples to settle within its borders and enlisted Germanic soldiers in its armies. The Huns Invade Europe (4th and 5th Centuries A.D.). The Huns, savage invaders from central Asia, terrorized Europe, causing many Germanic tribes to flee into the Roman Empire. Attila, the "Scourge of God," later led the Huns in ravaging the Empire until turned back by a combined Roman-Germanic force at the Battle of Chalons (451 A.D.). The Huns, nevertheless, had weakened Rome militarily and hastened its downfall. The Germanic Tribes End the Roman Empire (4th and 5th Centuries A.D.). The full-scale Germanic migrations into Roman territory could not be stemmed by the enfeebled Roman government. Gradually the Germanic tribes established kingdoms within the Empire: the Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Vandals in North Africa, the Franks in Gaul, and the Angles and Saxons in Britain. In 476 A.D. Germanic mercenaries overthrew the last emperor in Rome. This event, according to most historians, ended the Western Roman Empire REASONS FOR THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE • Why could the Germanic tribes crush Rome, so long the master of the Mediterranean world? The answer lies not in Germanic strength but in Roman weakness. By the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., the Roman Empire had declined because of the following internal conditions: • Political. (a) The dictatorial government was frequently inefficient and corrupt and did not command the people's loyalty. (b) The vast Empire, having primitive transportation and communication, could not be governed efficiently from one central city. (c) Rivalry over succession to the throne often resulted in destructive civil wars. • Social. (a) People were interested mainly in luxury and survival. The early Roman ideals of patriotism, service, and morality had almost vanished. (b) Sharp class distinctions existed. The upper classes were wealthy and educated; the lower classes were poor and ignorant. (c) Cities—previously centers of culture and industry—declined as people fled to the rural regions. More Reasons • Economic. (a) Small farmers had abandoned their lands, and many had become workers on large estates. - No longer independent, they lost the incentive to improve farming methods or to increase production. (b) The self-sufficiency of the large estates hampered trade and curtailed industry, thus causing an economic decline. (c) Heavy, often unjust, taxation burdened the people and destroyed their ambition to work and progress. (d) The widespread use of slaves in industry and agriculture caused great unemployment among the plebeians. • Military. (a) The warlike spirit of early pagan Rome was weakened by Christian teachings of peace and universal love. (b) The Roman armies included many Germanic mercenaries of uncertain loyalty. (c) The armies, considering themselves masters of the state, not its servants, often chose the emperors and determined government policy. ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO CIVILIZATION • 1. Pax Romana (27 B.c.–180 A.D.). For over 200 years Roman military might enforced in the Mediterranean world the Pax Romana, or "Roman peace." This was a period of social cohesion on an international scale. Trade and commerce expanded; the arts and sciences thrived; Greco-Roman, or classical, civilization reached everywhere in the Empire. The achievements under the Pax Romana prove that peace means progress. • 2.Roman Law. The Romans developed bodies of law on business matters, family relationships, individual rights, and international affairs, Justinian, Roman emperor at Constantinople (527–565 A.D.), directed jurists to codify these laws. The Justinian Code influenced the legal systems of western Europe and, less directly, the United States. – Roman law was intended to be impartial and humane. Two of its principles were: – (a) All persons are equal before the law. – (b) Accused persons are guaranteed legal protection Roman Contributions • 3. Architecture. The Romans constructed military roads, aqueducts, bridges, and marble buildings—some still in use. Roman architects effectively employed the arch, dome, and column. – • • • • • • During the reign of Emperor Vespasian, the Romans erected the famous stone amphitheater, the Colosseum. In its arena gladiators and wild beasts battled to entertain spectators. 4. Language. Latin, the Roman language, is (a) the root of the Romance (or Romanic) languages: French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Rumanian and (b) the source of about one-half of the words in the English language. 5. Literature Cicero (106- 43 B.c.), an orator and writer, is known as the "father of Latin prose." He wrote extensively on ethical, religious, and political subjects, and delivered famous orations in defense of the Roman Republic. Vergil (70–19 B.c.) wrote the famous epic poem, the Aeneid. In relating the adventures of Aeneas, whose descendants supposedly founded Rome, Vergil extolled Rome's greatness. Horace (65–8 B.c.) wrote Odes, charming poetry about everyday life. A moralist, he praised the early Roman virtues of simplicity, courage, and reverence. More Contributions • • • • • • • 6. Historical Writing Livy (59 B.c.–17 A.D.) wrote an encyclopedic history—only part of which has survived—of Rome from its founding to the Augustan Age. Livy deplored the decay of the early Roman virtues and the fall of the Republic. Plutarch (100 A.D.) compared Roman and Greek heroes in his book of biographies, Parallel Lives. Tacitus (55–120 A.D.), in his work Germania, vividly described life among the Germanic barbarians. 7. Science. The Romans were practical scientists, specializing in sanitation, public health, and engineering. The research scientists of the Empire were generally non-Romans. Galen (131–201 A.D.), a Greek physician, wrote books summarizing the ancient world's medical knowledge. He also performed experiments involving the nervous and circulatory systems. Ptolemy (2nd century A.D.), a Greek astronomer, taught—erroneously as we now know—that (1) the earth is the center of the universe and (2) the sun revolves about the earth. (This Ptolemaic theory was corrected in the 16th century A.D. by the Copernican theory, see page 131.)