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AP Psychology
Chapter 8
Learning
Learning
• Relatively permanent change in an organism’s
behavior due to experience
• Associative learning- by linking two events close
together. The events may be two stimuli (as in
classical conditioning) or a response and its
consequences (as in operant conditioning.)
Types of Conditioning
• Conditioning- learning associations
• Classical Conditioning- a type of learning in which
an organism comes to associate stimuli. (Pavlovian
conditioning)
• Operant Conditioning- a type of learning in which
behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer
or diminished if followed by a punisher.
• Observational Learning- learning from observing
others.
Classical Conditioning
• Behaviorism- the view that psychology
1) should be an objective science that
2) studies behavior without reference to mental
processes
• Most psychologist today agree with 1) but not 2)
Pavlov’s Salivating Dog Experiment
• (UCR) Uncontrolled Responsenaturally occurring response to the
uncontrolled stimulus
• (UCS) Uncontrolled Stimulusnaturally and automatically triggers a
response
• (CR) Conditioned Response- to a
previously neutral conditioned
stimulus
• (CS) Conditioned Stimulus- irrelevant
stimulus that comes to trigger a
conditioned response
bell
+
food = salivation
(CS)
(UCS)
(UCR)
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
• Extinction- diminished
response when CS no
longer signals an UCS
• Generalization- the
tendency to respond to
similar stimuli to the CS
• Spontaneous Recoveryreappearance of a CR after
a pause/rest
• Discrimination- the learned
ability to distinguish
between a CS and to other
irrelevant stimuli
Updating Pavlov’s Understanding
• Cognitive processPavlov’s Legacy
thoughts, perceptions,
Applications of Classical
expectations (predictability)
Conditioning
• Biological Predispositionsorganism’s learning
capacity
• Drug cravings appear at familiar drug
used places
• Counselors sometimes provide alcohol
abusers with experiences that may
reverse their positive associations with
alcohol
• Classical conditioning even works on
the body’s disease-fighting immune
system
Operant Conditioning
• Subjects associate behaviors with consequences
(reinforced)
• Operant Behavior- the act operates on the
environment to produce rewarding or punishing
stimuli
• Respondent Behavior- behavior that occurred as an
automatic response to some stimulus
Skinner’s Experiments
• Law of Effect- Thorndike’s principle that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences become more
likely followed by punishment less likely
• Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)- a chamber
containing a bar or key that an animal can
manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer.
This is recorded.
• Shaping- reinforcers gradually guide an animal’s
actions toward a desired behavior
Principles of Reinforcement
Reinforcement
• In operant conditioning, any event that increases the frequency of a
preceding response (positive) or (negative)
Types of Reinforcements
• Primary- satisfies a biological need
• Conditioned- gains reinforcing power through its association with
primary reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)
• Continuous- reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
• Partial- responses are sometimes reinforced
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive
Negative
- Add a desirable stimulus
- Remove an aversive stimulus
• Getting a hug
• Fastening seatbelt to turn off
beeping
• Watching T.V.
• Sharing with friends
• Saying “I’m sorry” will equal
forgiveness
Schedules
• Fixed-Ratio- a schedule of • Variable-Ratio- a schedule
reinforcement that
of reinforcement that
reinforces a response only
reinforces a response after
after a specified number of
an unpredictable number
responses
of responses
• Fixed-Interval- a schedule
• Variable-Interval- a
of reinforcement that
schedule of reinforcement
reinforces a response only
that reinforces a response
after a specified time has
at unpredictable time
elapsed
intervals
Punishment- opposite to that of reinforcement;
decreases behavior that it follows
Positive
Negative
- Administer an aversive stimulus
- Withdraw a desirable stimulus
• Spanking
• Time-out from privileges such as
T.V.
• A parking ticket
• Revoked driver’s license
• A friend yells at you for lying to
them; therefore, you wont lie
again (hopefully)
• For lying to your friend, she/he
stops being your friend
Updating Skinner’s Understanding
• Cognitive map- mental representation of the layout of one’s
environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act
as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
• Latent learning-learning that becomes apparent only when
there is some incentive to demonstrate it
• Overjustification effect- promise a reward for doing a
likable thing
Continued…
• Intrinsic motivation- the desire to perform a
behavior effectively and for its own sake
• Extrinsic motivation- desire to perform a behavior
due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
Observational Learning
- Learning by observing others
• Modeling- process of observing and imitating a
specific behavior
• Mirror neurons- (frontal lobe & motor cortex)
mirroring another’s actions may enable imitation,
language learning, and empathy (monkey see, monkey do)
• Prosocial- (positive, helpful) models can have
prosocial effect. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Albert Bandura’s Experiment
Bandura studied observational learning and put it to a
test where he had a child watch an adult abuse a
bop-it doll. Therefore, in return, the child would
respond in the same way if he/she was in the past
violent or they would not act in such a way if they
were not violent in the past. This showed that most
children lead by example or observational learning.
Example: Two boys watch wrestling on T.V. then they
all of a sudden start reenacting the men who are
wrestling. (observational learning)
The End
By: Lauren