Download Unconscious priming Klinger & Greenwald, 1995

Exam 2 material begins here:
Facebook and personality (see p. 70)
What’s on your Facebook page?
Is it possible to gain an understanding of
your personality from your Facebook page?
Theory? (proposed relationship for narcissism)
Method of investigation?
Data and theory-driven proof?
Note: This is not a formalized assessment tool, but
can be used to test theoretical assumptions
Survey study: Facebook & narcissism
(Carpenter, 2012)
 Standardized self-report measures of narcissism and self
esteem
 Survey data on # of FB updates, > 1 hr/day?, tag on
photos? Large # of virtual vs. real friends?, enhance
your photos? Self-promoting posts?
 Found these FB patterns (and others) to be associated
with low self-esteem and higher narcissism.
 Assuming these associations are real, what are the
implications of certain types of FB use?
What further research is needed to make those conclusions?
Contemporary Psychodynamic Models
Four basic orientation in psychodynamic theory,
with the first, drive theory (sex and aggression),
reflected in Freud’s framework.
Contemporary models still emphasize the
unconscious, but focus on:
1) Object relations
2) Self-psychology
3) Ego Psychology
1. Object Relations
 Object relations = well defined ideas or mental
representations (objects) that are largely based on early
relationships with parents are a central part of the self.
Focus of the object relations is impacted by early attachment
experiences, especially the mother-infant unit
e.g., past experiences with mother would influence how one views other
women in your life. Perceived abandonment (mother left for work-related
trips) would result in fears of abandonment with adult relationships
* emphasis is on perception rather than reality (perceived abandonment)
 If behavior such as aggression manifests, it is assumed
to be due to problematic object relations, not a normal,
internal drive (as per Freud)
Balancing parent-child identities
Symbiosis – an undifferentiated mother-infant unit
Individuation – the infant’s increasing separation
and self-sufficiency
Role of parental separation in disrupting normal
symbiosis and individuation (i.e., accelerating
individuation or prolonging symbiosis)
Any dysfunction in the parent-child relationship can
undermine later development
Personality development must be considered within the
context of the mother-infant unit (Winnicott)
Putting object relations to the test, part 1
 Does childhood trauma at the hands of one’s parents
predict later life problems?
Focus on parental physical abuse and it’s impact on physical
and mental health (Springer et al., 2007)
> 2,000 middle-age adults who completed self-reported measures of
anxiety, depression, physical symptoms, and self-reports of past abuse
11-12% of the sample reported childhood physical abuse (national figures
indicate approx. 2% of children who are < 1 y.o., are abused).
Incidence of childhood abuse did prospectively predict depression, anxiety,
physical symptoms and medical diagnoses, even after controlling for
demographics, family background, and other childhood adversities.
What are some of the confounds of this research?
Alternative hypotheses? What if trauma at any age predicts the same
problems?
The importance of attachment &
separation in object relations
 Attachment and how the infant experiences separation, are
central features of normal human development
 Also occurs in nonhuman species & is critical to development
See Harlow’s studies on orphaned monkeys (preference
for terry cloth mothers over wire, feeding mothers)
Early separation undermines normal social development
and leads to greater timidity and isolation
Early attachment & separation
 Based on theories and research forwarded by John Bowlby
(1969) on mammals showing how off-spring separate from
parent(s)
 Proximity-enhancing behavior is present in all mammals
(e.g., clinging, separation anxiety, etc.)
 Importance of initial strong attachment in mammals:
maximize survival
 During separation: 1. separation protest 2. silence 3. reattachment
Putting object relations to the test, part 2
 Does maternal separation predict later life problems?
Studied maternal separation in lab-based, animal models
(Daniels et al., 2004), and this can address two limitations of
the earlier research, which did not look at maternal separation
(as per object relations theory) and causality (why?)
Manipulated postnatal contact between rat pups and their mothers (3
hrs/day from days 2-14 post birth) and then examined maze learning
Compared to control rat pups, the separated rats were less likely to enter
the maze, less locomotion, spent more time in closed arms of the maze &
higher defecation frequency. Also, higher ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic
hormone)
Suggests higher anxiety from separation?
How does rat pup behavior map on to disturbances in human behavior?
What are some of the confounds of this research?
2. Self Psychology
 Theory: Heinz Kohut believed that all children need for
someone to affirm and admire their achievements
Typically a parent (mother), but could be someone else
Mirroring refers to the act of responding to child’s expressions
accurately. It includes understanding child’s emotions and affirms
and reflects those emotions back to the child.
E.g., when child cries, mimicking the sad face, or happy face, etc.
Kohut believed that this was critical to personality/identity
development (a self-structure is developed with proper affirmation)
Treatment of those with narcissistic PD involves empathy and
affirmation (adult version of mirroring)
Research suggesting brain damage from the experience of
humiliation (the presumed underlying experience of NPD)
Kohut’s concepts
 Transmutting internalization – self-object relations are
internalized leading to normal development (the self-concept
includes other objects but remains distinct from them)
Includes being receptive to introjects (internalized objects),
experiencing shortcomings when internalizations don’t fully meet the
child’s needs (thus the self must grow to meet those needs), and the
experience of minor loses (fosters more development).
Note: The importance of shortcomings/loses in normal development
 Psychic structures – internal object relations
 Epigenetic principle – biological origins of behavior are
influenced by environmental availability (nature/nurture)
Summary: Child takes in psychic structures from primary
caregivers to ultimately form his/her own identity
Erikson’s Identity Development (lifespan model); p. 81
1. Trust vs. mistrust
- infant learns to trust
parents for survival
needs
4. Industry vs.
Inferiority
- trial and error with
mastery, learn which
tasks you can do.
7. Generativity vs.
stagnation
- Have you achieved
anything productive?
2 Autonomy vs shame
- learn to act
independent of
parents
5. Identity vs. Role
confusion
- self identity begins
to form (why now?)
8. Integrity vs. despair
- Happiness with
one’s life, though
resigned to the fact
it’s ending
3. Initiative vs. guilt
- learn to initiate
actions, thoughts, and
emotional experiences
6.Intimacy vs isolation
-adult relationships
- “decision” is often
made more than once
Numerous ego crises
occur throughout
(e.g., adolescence,
midlife, late life)
Summary of recent research on stages
 Little support for the idea of a “crisis” marked by stress
and turmoil in either adolescents or adulthood (only
about 20% of individuals experience it) – Erikson
emphasized identity formation
 Difficult to experimentally differentiate early internal
experiences (stages)
 Erikson’s stages represent conflicts of theoretical
interest, not necessary/invariant developmental
milestones
 Recent research has emphasized the last stage due to
the increase in the population of that age
Regrets - predict well being only in the elderly
 Omission – regret not doing something
 Commission – regret doing something
 Which are more salient?
Mr. Paul sells stocks in Co. B to buy stocks in Co. A: - $1200.
Mr. George owns stocks in Co. A and is thinking of changing to
Co. B, but doesn’t: - $1200. Who feels more regret? (Tversky)
 Sample of 155 older adults (Lecci et al. 1994) found:
Regrets of commission appear costlier in the present, but regrets
of omission affect us more in the long term (note: there are more
of the latter).
Number of regrets are not predicted by age, but more regrets for
older adults resulted in higher depression (not so for the young)
Regret saliency & whether you had control over the regret is more
relevant to well-being (i.e., key is perception of the regret)
Narcissism
 It’s everywhere. Public figures say it’s what makes them
stray from their wives. Parents teach it by dressing children
in T-shirts that say "Princess." Teenagers & young adults
hone it on Facebook, and celebrity newsmakers have
elevated it to an art form. And it’s what’s making people
depressed, lonely, and buried under piles of debt.
 Narcissism – extreme self love/self absorption
Some self-love is healthy and necessary to promote self-esteem
Too much self-love indicates a problem (correcting low self-esteem?)
Require external validation (vs. self validation) to elevate self-conf.
Research shows that narcissists are biased to assume that
others view them more positively, though they recognize
that the favorable views decrease with time
Kohut and Narcissism
 Kohut suggested that we are fueled to move from a
fragile/fragmented self to maturation by narcissism
(reflects the healthy aspects of narcissism)
When sexual and aggressive drives are focused on
the self vs. others.
Shame and rage (when narcissism is not satisfied)
are core emotions in narcissism
e.g., as adults, when others fail to meet your
demands/needs do you take it as a personal insult?
3. Ego Psychology
 Heinz Hartmann – emphasized the ego, but wanted to apply
it to normal/healthy functioning as well
Ego functions – emphasizes finding adaptive solutions (coping
mechanisms) and tolerating frustration, disappointment and other
stress (as coping will not always work)
 Harry Sullivan – believed personality changed over the
lifetime and developed secondary to interactions with others
e.g., An old self emerges when interacting with old friends
Personifications of the self and others (similar to objects)
3 Types of Personifications: 1) the bad-me, 2) the good me, 3) the not me
 Focus on defenses (does IQ reflect developmental stages?)
With higher IQ, use of denial is associated with less ego development
With lower IQ, use of denial and projection associated with more ego
development (Cramer, 1999)
Malan’s Triangle of Conflict
 Depicts the interplay between underlying emotions (e.g.,
anxiety) and the defenses that attempt to control them
All defenses noted in chapter two can be used (and are assumed
to be outside of awareness), thereby leading to an almost infinite
number of combinations with the emotional responses.
Defenses keep
anxiety out of
conscious
awareness.
Debate about the nature
of this anxiety. Some
research has focused on
existential anxiety over
the end of our life.
A new twist on the unconscious: TMT
 Terror Management Theory (TMT) suggests that we are
strongly (though often unconsciously) influenced by
thoughts of our own mortality (Greenberg et al., 2008)
 Mortality can be made more salient either consciously or
unconsciously (see also Becker, 1973)
 Mortality salience inductions (think about your own death)
vs. subtle thoughts (standing near a funeral home) vs.
control (pain)
 With threat to mortality, we act aggressively towards others
(especially outside groups) to establish social order
 MS impacts size of financial judgments especially against
foreign entities (e.g., Toyota vs. Chevy), and even influences
judges’ bond amounts for an unrelated case (see Arndt et
al., 2005 for a review).
Self esteem is a buffer (defense) against threats to our mortality
Assessment tools for
Contemporary Psychodynamics
 Clinical interview
Most data is still collected from patients, so the clinical
interview is used frequently
Can vary in how structured they are (see trade-offs for
standardization, reliability, and validity)
 Projective tests (Rorschach, TAT, sentence completion)
Debate as to tests vs. techniques due to low
standardization in administration, scoring and
interpretation which decreases reliability and validity
In 1987, Exner devised a new scoring system to address
these problems and some studies have shown significantly
improved prediction of outcomes (see meta-analysis, Hiller
et al., 1999)
Rorschach revisions: A closer look
 Exner’s scoring for the Rorschach has better
psychometrics (same 10 cards, same administration, &
min 14 responses)
Location
Determinant (Form? Color? CF/FC?, Movement?)
Popular responding
Content (closer to original Rorschach scoring)
Downside is time needed to administer and score
Evaluating the Rorschach and
other projective tests
 There are some contexts in which TAT and Rorschach
are valid (this includes Exner’s scoring system), but
they are limited (see Lilienfeld et al., 2000)
Not in forensic contexts
Some success with diagnoses in psychiatric settings
Projectives should be used in conjunction with other
instruments
 Limited evidence for the effectiveness of other
projective tests like the sentence completion
 Many clinicians still use these tests, and they have an
impact on important decisions
Ch. 4: Neurobiological models
 Neurobiological models for understanding personality
Can the brain’s development, occurring in childhood
and adolescence, be a better explanation for
characterological changes?
Capitalizes on the advancements in the field of
neuroscience
Focus on human social genomics (also called epigenetic
responses) referring to some genes that are especially
responsive to social and environmental regulation
e.g., individual differences in response to environmental factors
can also occur at the genetic level (differences in sensitivity to
environmental cues)
Understanding basic brain functions
Neurons – billions; used to convey info. throughout the body
Neurogenesis – the creation of neurons
Early fetal development sees approx. 3 million neurons
developed per minute
Neurogenesis continues into adulthood but slows with
age (brain is thought to be fully developed in early 20s)
The Neuron (see depiction)
Dendrites – take in neurochemical info
Axon – sends messages to next neuron (myelin sheath =
faster)
Cell body where action potential begins
Depiction of a neuron
Neuronal communication
A depiction of learning at the level of one’ neurons.
Neurotransmitters (p. 106)
 > 100 different neurotransmitters. Examples with trait
associations
Dopamine: controls arousal levels & motor functioning
Predicts risk-taking behavior (Heitland, et al., 2012)
Serotonin: controls mood, sleep, appetite
Higher levels (or > sensitivity) associated with optimism
Acetylcholine: controls attention, learning & memory
Gamma-aminobutyric acid: inhibits over-excitation
Higher levels are associated with relaxation & < stress
Noradrenaline: higher mood/arousal (stress response)
Glutamate: helps form connections between neurons
Enkephalins & Endorphins: modulate pain, reduce stress
Promotes happiness and well-being
Putting neurobiological theory to
the test, part 1
 Is serotonin related to depression and longer standing
experiences (neuroticism)? More than mere depletion hypo.
Using genetically-engineered mice who have either a susceptibility
or resilience for depression.
By activating or deactivating serotonin levels genetically they could
alter depression (presumed connection to neuroticism too)
See Dominquez-Lopez et al., 2012
Also see research that alters serotonin by depleting tryptophan (a precursor to
serotonin) by changing one’s diet
Strengths?
Focus on neurobiological models that are similar to those in humans
Experiment that randomly assigns to manipulations of genetics
Removes the effects of expectancy/motivation bias seen in virtually all human
studies (unless countered by effective control groups; easier for drug studies,
hard for therapy studies)
Weaknesses? (studying 1 neuron in isolation? Mice?)
Major divisions of the brain
 The lobes: 1. Frontal (higher cognitive & motor functioning),
2.Occipital (visual processing), 3. Temporal (auditory
processing), & 4. Parietal (sensations of the skin and muscles)
 Each of the 4 lobes occur in each hemisphere
 Right hemisphere – visual-spatial processing
 Left hemisphere – language
production (Brocha’s area),
comprehension (Wernicke’s area),
& motor functions (10% of people are
left-handed; lateralization)
Neuroplasticity – seen with normal
development and also in response to
brain trauma
Altering the brain alters personality
 Research on personality change in AD patients
Decreased openness to new experience (creativity)
and conscientiousness (e.g., Pocnet et al., 2013)
 Case study: Phineas Gage
Damage to frontal cortex (steel rod)
Increased impatience (what might have been called
decreased ability to delay gratification
Disinhibition (also related to failed control)
The neuroscience of the unconscious
 Recall studies showing how information that is not
consciously perceived can influence us (chapter 2)
e.g., pictures that are masked help prime responses in the word
pairs as related or unrelated
 fMRI studies have examined the part of the brain that
responds to unconscious material (left fusiform gyrus &
left precentral gyrus; Dehaene et al., 2001)
 Further validation of the influence of material to which
we are less or unaware.
The neuroscience of attachment
 Rapid brain growth (including neuronal and synaptic
growth) until age 2
 After which, neurons that are not used die (neural
pruning)
 Certain environmental contexts are needed to promote
cell growth, such as opportunities for attachment
See research on sensitive periods (learning is most
likely to occur) vs. critical periods (learning must
occur)
e.g., language acquisition follows sensitive not critical period
learning, whereas imprinting in ducks is a critical period
The neuroscience of stress/trauma
 Many theories focus on the impact and significance of early
trauma
Studied physiologically by Hans Selye (1956) to include
alarm, resistance and exhaustion
 Humans are somewhat unique in their ability to ruminate
over past and future stressors and potential stressors (see
Why zebras don’t get ulcers; Sapolsky, 2004)
High emotional arousal whether from a trauma, or
anticipated trauma (real or imagined) is associated with
many personality disorders
Influence of genetic predisposition, neonatal development
and exposure to traumas to influence measurable changes
in the brain
Putting neurobiological theory to
the test, part 2
 Debate on how/if serotonin is related to depression?
 Low levels of serotonin have been associated with
irritability in animals (Depue, 1995) and depression in
humans (e.g., SSRIs like Zoloft, Prozac, Paxil, Effexor,
Serzone, etc.)
 *Today we still do not understand the mechanisms
affecting depression (Kirsch et al, 2002, 2010 for a critique
of SSRIs – no better than placebo based on all FDA data,
with 80% of therapeutic effects explained by placebo)
Placebo also getting stronger, so not a constant for
comparison (see link on class webpage).
SSRIs and Placebos stimulate neurogenesis (Santarelli et
al., 2003)
Theoretical Neurobiological models
Increasing complexity over the years
Early fluid models of Galen (450 BC)
Sanguine (blood) - cheerful
Melancholic (black bile) - depressive
Choleric (yellow bile) - irritable
Phlegmatic (phlegm/mucus) - unemotional
Blood/fluid letting to “treat” personality
Why would this model persist over time? (primary targets of
intervention?)
Hans Eysenck (research from 1967- 1997)
 There are reliable differences in personality observed around
the world (focused on 1) Intro/Extra, 2)
Neuroticism/emotional stability, 3) Psychoticism/ego
strength
 Suggested biological determinants of personality
Blood type – there are also reliable differences in blood
types observed around the world and these are the cause
of different personality types (often mistaken for cultural
influences)
few findings emerged to support this perspective
Brain activity – activation in certain parts of the brain
predicts different behaviors associated with certain traits
more support for this model, especially for the traits of
extraversion/introversion
Eysenck’s Introversion/extraversion
 Differences in cortical activity in the ascending reticular
activating system (ARAS) predict different behavior
 Theory (Eysenck, 1967):
Extraverts are chronically under aroused and seek
stimulation for the brain (ARAS)
Introverts are chronically over aroused and seek to
avoid stimulation (ARAS)
 Research:
Performance and exposure to loud/soft music
Preferred and optimal volume of background music
for a dual attention task
No difference at baseline, but response to stimulation
differs (greater for the introvert)
Eysenck’s model for activating the brain
 Proposed that we can stimulate our brains through our interactions
with others
 Extraverts seek out stimulation while introverts avoid it
 Interpersonal interactions result in increased brain activity, and this
can be heightened by minimizing personal distance/personal space
 Differences in preference for personal space have been observed
worldwide (e.g., UK = approximately 6 feet, African nations =
approx. 2 feet, US = approx. 4 feet
 When people interact, they are attempting to reach their preferred
personal space. This is difficult when different people have different
personal space preferences
 Eysenck studied interactions at meetings of the United Nations
(“UN dance”)
Other factors that effect personal space?
Spacing follows predictable patterns as individuals fill a
room
What circumstances allow for the violation of personal
space preferences?
1. Environmental: Crowding conditions allow us to
tolerate personal space violations for short periods of time
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rr7q-v7NIRQ
2. Self determined: Altering eye contact can be used to
either minimize physical closeness or increase it
3. Intimacy of the relationship (generally only permit
violations of personal space for those emotionally close to
you)
How else do we stimulate our brains?
 Activities that are considered high in sensation seeking
or “need for stimulation” (Zuckerman)
skydiving, driving fast down a tight road, confrontations or other
intense interactions with others that minimize personal distance,
ingesting caffeine, sugar, nicotine, etc.
 Meta-analysis of sensation seeking and behavior
(Roberti, 2004)






SS higher
SS higher
SS higher
SS higher
SS higher
SS higher
medium)
for
for
for
for
for
for
males and younger individuals (strong effect)
those who abuse substances (med to strong)
high risk sports (small to medium) – skill issue
risky sexual behavior (medium to high)
gambling
“exciting” vacations and exciting hobbies (low to
BIS/BAS (J. Grey)
 A broader model that has recently received more
empirical support involves more diffuse brain activation
behavioral activating system (approach motivation)
behavioral inhibition system (avoidance motivation)
 BAS – individuals are focused on reinforcers not
punishers (heightened neuronal sensitivity)
 BIS – individuals are focused on punishers not
reinforcers (heightened neuronal sensitivity)
 Related this to anxiety, depression, and several other
disorders like alcoholism
Other theoretical models
 Depue’s 3-factor model
Positive emotionality (extraversion), constraint (ego strength),
negative emotionality (neuroticism)
 Cloninger’s Unified Biosocial theory
Novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence
 Siever’s dimensional model
Cognitive/perceptual organization, impulsivity/aggression,
affective instability, anxiety/inhibition
 In the chapter (9) on traits we will return to the idea of
“factors” reflecting underlying traits.
Biological evidence for abnormal behavior
 Schizophrenia is one of the disorders with the strongest biological
evidence
48% incidence for those having both parents or an identical
twin (MZ) with the disorder
 Evidence at the neuroanatomical level (enlarged ventricles) and
neurochemical level (dopamine)
 For depression, there is also some neurochemical evidence
(seratonin and epinephrin)
 Questionable research on genes that underlie disorders such as
alcoholism, criminality, sexual identity, etc.
 The exact mechanisms in all cases are not fully understood (recall
Humoral theory!)
Understanding genetics
 Genes are arranged along chromosomes = strands of paired DNA
 Human cells have 46 chromosomes (except sperm cells and egg cells,
each of which have 23 chromosomes)
 The union of the sperm & egg cells creates a 46 chromosome cell
with a somewhat random selection of genetic material from each
parent.
 Children will share 50% of their genetic composition with each
biological parent.
 Full siblings also have a 50% genetic overlap as they .25 chance of
sharing a gene from mother and .25 from father
 Monozygotic twins (identical) – have 100% genetic overlap as they
come from the same sperm and egg
 Dizygotic twins (fraternal) – have 50% genetic overlap as they are
formed from two sperm and two eggs (same as full siblings)
 Examine overlap of personality traits as a function of genetic overlap
Do genetics underlie personality?
 Temperament – stable individual differences in emotional reactivity
Commonly studied in children (i.e., how does one respond to
various stimuli such as a hug, loud noise, etc.)
 Use of twin studies to determine aspects of temperament that are due
to genetics vs. environment (heritability coefficient - .4 to .6 for most
traits)
Dunn & Plomin, 1990 found heritability coefficients of .4 to .6
depending on the trait (e.g., neuroticism is highest, openness to
new experience/creativity is lowest); Consistency is lowest in
childhood highest after age 50 (Roberts & Friend-DelVecchio, 2000)
 Comparison of monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins (if there is
twice as much overlap for the MZ twins relative to DZ twins then this
suggests the role of heredity as MZ twins are genetically identical –
twice that of DZ twins)
e.g., genes affect temperament (aggression) and this might
influence if one plays a sport like football (vs. an athletic gene).
Do MZ vs. DZ twins tell the whole story?
 If MZ twins are reared apart, does that mean that all
similarities are due to genetics? (this is assumed)
e.g., DZ twin with schizophrenia – 17-24% incidence MZ twin
has a 48% incidence
 Similarities due to the fact that each person engenders
similar responses from the environment (Phelps et al, ‘97)
 Monochorionic (MC) MZ twins – have a single placenta
and circulation system (about one third of cases)
 Dichorionic (DC) MZ twins - have two separate single
placenta and circulation systems
 Consider the in utero environment (shared = MC)
MZ twins – 48% when MZ is MC (drops to 28% when DC)
 More is due to environment than we thought
Sokol et al., 1995
 Compared MC and DC MZ twins at ages 4 through 6
using the Personality Inventory for Children.
 MC MZ twins were more similar on all 20 of the
personality scales measures by the Personality Inventory
for Children (13 were statistically significant)
 The observed differences can not be due to genetics
since these are MZ twins (genetically identical), so
differences must be due to the effects of the pre-birth
environment.
 Note: Also found differences between MC and DC MZ
twins with regard to intelligence scores, incidence of
schizophrenia, etc. (greater similarity for the MC twins)
Assessment methods in
neurobiological psychology
 Single cell recording (electrophysiology)
Study of non-human species with large neurons
 Neuroanatomical studies
Focus on brain injured patients
 Brain Lesioning and functional surgery
Early 20th century practices (lobotomies to change behavior)
 Case studies of neurological disorders
Personality changes seen in degenerative conditions like AD & PD
 Neuropsychological testing
Brain-behavior association using a large number of paper-and-pencil,
interactive tests
Technological tools and
neurobiological assessment
 Electroencephalography (EEG) and neuroimaging
Measuring evoked potentials in response to stimulation
 Brain imaging
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
Yields 3-D images of the brain with radio waves
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
Adds real time activity of the brain to the standard MRI
PET (positron emission tomography)
Areas of the brain that are activated can be seen with radioactive isotopes
NIRS (near-infrared spectroscopy)
Records fuel used by the brain (no deep tissue access)
MEG (magnetoencephalography)
Measures the magnetic field generated by the electrical activity of the brain)
SPECT (single-photon emission computed tomography)
Gamma rays to yield 3-D images
Overview and critique of bio. perspective
 General support for the fact that such activities alter
brain activity and that there are individual differences in
the brain’s responsiveness
Problems standardizing how these advanced methods are used
 Some inconsistent findings and ongoing issues may be
due to how brain activity is quantified
intensity,
duration,
speed of neuronal response following exposure to the stimulus,
Which is most accurate/correct?
Each may indicate different findings.
Ch 5: Behavioral models of personality
 http://www.break.com/video/ugc/the-office-altoid-experiment-1499823
 “Give me a dozen healthy infants, and I will make them at
random…” (Watson, 1930); Tabula rasa (Locke, 1672)
When a tone/chime denoting an incoming text occurs, what is your
now well-learned behavioral response (even if the sound came from
someone else’s phone)?
Does the McDonald’s theme make you salivate?
How long does it take you to experience relief after taking pain
medication (in tablet form) for a headache?
How does your dog respond when you pick up your keys?
 Are artists born or made? (see Cohen et al, 2002)
Behaviorism is comprised of two types of learning:
1) Classical and 2) Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
reflexive actions/learning by temporal associations
 The story of Pavlov, a dog, & serendipity
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that produces a
response without learning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) - a stimulus that produces a response
after learning
Unconditioned response (UCR) - a response to a stimulus that
occurs without learning
Conditioned response (CR) - learned response
neutral stimulus - any stimulus that does not produce a
response (all CS were neutral at one time)
 Before conditioning: food = UCS, salivating = UCR,
bell = neutral stimulus
 After conditioning: bell = CS, salivating = CR
What happens if we keep
ringing the bell?
 Extinction - CS no longer
produces the CR
 Spontaneous recovery after a break, the
previously extinct CS
produces the CR
 Higher order conditioning
- a CS is paired with
another CS to get the CR
(see diagram)
 What happens if we
make a sound that is
similar to the bell?
Food
Bell
Tone
Clap
Key concepts - continued
 Generalization - producing the same CR for a similar CS
(e.g., all alcohol; anything that sounds like a bell)
 Discrimination - produces a CR for only a very specific CS
(e.g. only “Mad Dog” wine; high pitched bell)
 Conditioning neurosis? circle (food) vs. ellipse (no food)
 One time conditioning (Garcia effect) - learning occurs
after a single pairing of neutral & unconditioned stimulus
Why would this be adaptive for aversive CRs?
This can occur even for reinforcers and lead to nonproductive behavior (e.g., superstitious behavior)
 In order to explain most of your day-to-day behavior it is
also necessary to consider non-reflexive actions (not just
salivating & fears)
PTSD and responses to images
 A psychiatric illness with acute anxiety in response to a
stressor and other similar experiences (i.e., generalization)
 Use of trauma-related images and non-trauma-related
images to differentiate trauma survivors with and without
PTSD; Ehlers et al., 2010)
 Participants: 162 survivors of MVA or assault recruited from
ER (41% met criteria for PTSD 1 month later)
 Exposed everyone to trauma-related, generally threatening
and neutral images.
 PTSD subjects showed sig > HR relative to controls only for
trauma-related images. All showed > HR for trauma/harm
Illustrates generalization and discrimination
Putting Behavioral Theory to the Test: Part 1
- Preparedness for phobias, Ohman et al., 1985
 Learning may not occur randomly, rather we may be
predisposed to learn some associations more easily
e.g., Are we prepared to acquire some fears more easily?
Most common fears…(adaptive?)
 70 male and female participants with no known history
of phobias were recruited
 half of the subjects were assigned to a condition pairing
flowers & faces with shock threat while others paired
shock threat with snakes and spiders
 All participants had arousal (fear) assessed using GSR
and EEG readings
 stimuli were paired with the shock threat until a fear
response was acquired. The findings…
Rates of acquisition – GSR & EEG
High
Flowers &
Faces
Physiological
Response
Spiders &
Snakes
Low
Time (number of pairings)
Rates of extinction
High
Physiological
Response
Flowers/Faces
Low
Time
Spiders/Snakes
Summary of Preparedness for phobias literature
 No difference in acquisition times (Ohman et al., 1985), but
other studies have found differences in HR for acquisition
 Significant difference in extinction rates (faster for flowers
and faces)
 Research generally shows that the fear response for
phobia-relevant stimuli are acquired more quickly (HR),
extinguished more slowly, less sensitive to extinction
instructions, and can occur below the threshold for
detection (unconscious?)
Golkar et al., 2013; Katlin et al., 2001
Confounds/Strengths of the research
Strengths:
 Generally uses self-report and physiological measures of
fear (multi-method of assessment)
 Use of multiple physiological measures (e.g., GSR & EEG)
 Testing both acquisition and extinction times
Weaknesses:
 Can evolutionary adaptiveness be confirmed when only
0.1% of over 35,000 types of spiders are poisonous (i.e.,
is this a needed adaptation?) – see putting learning theory
to the Test, Part 2.
Evidence for belongingness
Acquisition and extinction curves appear to be
related to the extent to which the stimuli
belongs with the aversive event (does the
sensory modality for the UCS match that for the
previously neutral, but now conditioned,
stimulus?)
e.g., shock (tactile) for spiders and snakes (tactile)
e.g., aversive odor (olfactory) for a skunk (olfactory)
Operant conditioning
- non-reflexive actions
 Law of effect – every behavior has a consequence, and the
consequence determines if the behavior will re-occur
(temporal association is no longer required)
 Law of exercise – the more a response –stimulus are paired
the more they are repeated (learning from repetition)
 Reinforcement - anything that increase the incidence of the
behavior to which it is linked
 Punishment - anything that decreases the incidence of the
behavior to which it is linked
Different brain regions appear to be implicated in the process of
reinforcement vs. punishment (Leotti & Delgado, 2014)
 Partial reinforcement – large, unpredictable reward
 Positive Punishment/Reinforcement - to add P or R
 Negative Punishment/Reinforcement - to remove P or R
Possible examples of reinforcers and punishers
Reinforcer
Positive
To give praise, love,
attention, money,
etc.
Punisher
To give a shock, a
spanking, a fine, etc.
To remove an
To remove
aversive stimulus like something valued
Negative pain, noise, etc.
like freedom,
attention, etc.
Delivery (Schedules) of reinforcement & punishment
 Continuous - best way to acquire a new behavior (or
extinguish an existing behavior)
Why not ideal to maintain the new learning?
 Fixed Ratio – set number of responses for the
reinforcement
 Fixed Interval – there is a set interval of time before the
next response is reinforced/punished
 Variable Ratio - changing number of responses needed
 Variable Interval - changing amount of time needed
* Shaping for more complex behavior
Putting learning theory to the test,
part 2
 Fears acquired by cultural practices or preparedness?
 Followed Ohman et al’s work of pairing pictures with aversive
stimuli (Cook et al., 1986)
 Used actual shocks vs. shock threat
 Added a condition of handguns and rifles (cultural association
with fear, but not evolutionary)
 Measured HR to indicate fear
 Found differences in acquisition and extinction curves for HR
 Acquisition and extinction curves similar for guns and rifles to
those found in flowers and faces (different from
spiders/snakes)
 Guns/rifles different in any other way from spiders/snakes?
Example schedules
Fixed
Interval
Ratio
Variable
Pay checks, boss
who “checks in” at
9am and 4pm, etc.
- lengthy breaks until
interval approaches
(bursts of activity)
Real estate agent,
busy phone line, etc.
- slow but steady
rate (busy phone)
Assembly line worker
- substantial
decrease in work
after reinforced
Slot machines
- most productive
schedule with
minimal pausing
Behavioral Applications
 Token economies, Applied BA for treating autism spectrum disorders
 Treatment of simple phobias – Phobias are intense fears (or nonnormative fears) that lead to dysfunction
Systematic desensitization – developed by J. Wolpe
Establish a fear hierarchy – from least feared to most feared
Progressive relaxation
Systematically expose the individual to each stimulus on the
fear hierarchy beginning with the lowest (up to several
months)
Must remain in a relaxed state while exposed to the stimulus
Must NOT remove the feared stimulus until fear is diminished
otherwise the fear is reinforced
Fears can be reinforced without exposure to the stimulus
 If fears are acquired through random pairings, why are some fears
(e.g., spiders, snakes) so common?
Behavioral concepts and their
translation to other theories
 Seligman’s learned helpless as a model for depression
First tested in animal models (shocking dogs with an escape route &
they escape, but shocking without an escape route leads to
helplessness even in the absence of the barrier to escape)
 Redefining personality traits in behavioral terms with a focus
on behavioral self-control
e.g., procrastination is the process of task avoidance and is not seen
when it is an enjoyable activity
e.g., impulse disorders involve problems with self-control
 Anxiety – conceptualized as behavioral avoidance
 Psychodynamic terms and parallel behavioral concepts
Repression – unlabeled drives, cues = unconscious
Projection – based on generalization & the expectation that others
will react in Kind (see Dollard & Miller, 1950; text p. 157)
Dollard & Miller’s Learning Theory
 Primary Drives – strong, unlearned drives that “impel action”
e.g., hunger, thirst, pain, sex
 Secondary drives – weaker, learned drives
e.g., need for approval, need for independence, etc.
 Responses to drives – can be dominant (more for primary
drives) or weaker, and any response strengthens as it is
repeated (rehearsed)
 Reinforcement – defined as any stimulus that reduces a drive
e.g., food is reinforcing only because (or when) the hunger drive is
activated
 Addressing complex behavior by considering competing
drives
Explaining more complex behavior
 Approach-approach conflicts
Stimuli that provide two equally desirable consequences
Attraction increases for the stimulus you have not selected and
decreases for the one you have selected. Why?
Examples?
 Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
Stimuli that provide two equally undesirable consequences
Fear increases for the stimulus you have selected and decreases
for the stimulus you have not selected (moving away from).
Examples?
Conflict from a single stimulus
 Approach-avoidance conflicts (Dollard & Millar)
The same stimulus provides both reinforcing and
punishing qualities and both increase in intensity as you
move toward it.
Examples?
Semi-starved animal seeking food on electrified grid
The phone call
 The rate at which fear and attraction increase/decrease is
not the same and varies as a function of the distance to
the target.
See diagram
Graph : Arousal by distance
High
Arousal
Fear (avoidance)
Attraction/Pleasure
(approach)
Note: The avoidance gradient
is steeper than the approach
gradient
Low
Arousal
Far
Near
DISTANCE FROM TARGET
Behavioral assessments
 Behavioral reactivity – change as a function of monitoring
 The short-term success of most diets, financial planning programs,
quit smoking attempts is due to reactivity (like demand effects)
 Applied Behavior Analysis – both a technique for
intervention and method of assessment (typically done pre
and post intervention)
Analysis of reinforcers, punishers, schedules, etc. to better
understand how behaviors are shaped, reinforced, and maintained.
Behavioral observation (children) or self-report of behaviors (adults)
e.g., why does child behave more problematically following punishment?
 Many behavioral scales:
Children (e.g., Neonatal Behavioral Assessment) and
 Adults (especially cognitively compromised adults)
Cultural variants – simply interpreted as distinct environments
Skinner’s article “Man”
 Why, according to Skinner, do we resist behaviorism?
 No freedom (Walden Two: Society based on pos reinforcement)
 Radical determinism
 What are the consequences of accepted behaviorism?
 No real “wishes”, “impulses”, “emotions”, & “attitudes”
 A simple act does not mean that someone is brave, virtuous, or loving. People
are just conditioned to act virtuous, brave, or loving.
 Skinner was against the concept of “personality,” as it was used in
the 1940s and earlier, because it implied something internal and
unique to you (rather than emphasizing the environment).
 Of course, non-psychodynamic theorists have also defined
personality as a stable pattern of behavior (more resistant to
variations in the environment)
 No true freedom of choice? (control over environment & genetics?)