Download Chapter 8 Conditioning and Learning

Chapter 8 Conditioning
and Learning
AP Outline Key Terms
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Difference between learned and
unlearned behavior
Classical Conditioning
Operant conditioning
Skinner, Pavlov
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Higher-order conditioning
Effects of reinforcement and
punishment
Reinforcement and omission
training
Behavior modification
Active and passive avoidance
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Cognitive Processes
Social Learning
Practice, schedules, delay of
reinforcement, motivation
Graphs used to show results of
experiments
Principles of learning and practical
applications
Emotional learning
Taste aversion
Coping versus helplessness
Biofeedback
Self control
Biological Factors
Biological constraints of learning
Insight
Latent learning
Social learning
Basics Learning and Conditioning
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Principles of learning reveal:
 To understand behavior
 To manage behavior
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Pavlov, Skinner, WatsonLittle Albert, Bandura
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Most learning is done by
observing and imitating
actions of others
Definitions
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Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavior due to experience.
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Reinforcement- is important to learning any
event that increases the probability that a
response will occur again.
Response- is any identifiable behavior
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Can be observable actions
 Can be internal = heartbeat increases
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Example of Learning
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Teaching a dog a trick
Reinforce response by -giving dog food
Teach a child to be neat give praise when they clean room.
(Response)
(Reinforcement)
Primary Definitions
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Classical Conditioning
“A Neutral Stimulus is
repeatedly paired with a
stimulus that reliably
provokes a response.”
A Neutral Stimulus
only by association
begins to elicit a
response.
Antecedents and Consequences
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Relates to what happens before and after a
response.
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Antecedent- events that precede a response
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Consequence- effects that follow a response
Classical Conditioning
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“Before a response”
“A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a
stimulus that reliably provokes a response.”
A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins
to elicit a response.
“Antecedent events become associated with one
another”
A stimulus that does not produce a response is
linked with one that does.
Learning occurs when new stimulus elicits a
response
Classical Conditioning Example
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Stimulus that reliably triggers a responsePuff of Air to the Eye -- causes a blink
(Natural Stimulus) (reflex- non-learned response)
Sound of horn is paired with puff of air
Repetition of paired stimulus causes association of
horn with puff of air. Soon horn will make
people blink
Create an Example of Classical
Conditioning
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Maximum two people
No repeat examples
Key Terms reinforced
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(NS) Neutral Stimulus= Bell
(CS) Conditioned Stimulus- a stimulus that =
learning and evokes a desired response – (NS
becomes CS)
(US) Unconditioned Stimulus- or natural
stimulus=meat stimulus innately capable of
eliciting a response.
(UR) Unconditioned Response= non-learned,
reflex, innate
Principles of Classical Conditioning
How conditioning occurs.
 Acquisition- or training – a conditioned response
must be reinforced (strengthened)
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Classical conditioning is reinforced when the conditioned
stimulus is paired with an Unconditioned Response.
* the US must follow immediately for conditioning to
work.
Higher-Order Conditioning- once a response is
learned it can be used like an Unconditioned stimulus
and be paired with another neutral stimulus to form a
new conditioned stimulus (advertisers use)
Principles of Classical Conditioning
How conditioning occurs.
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Expectancy: Expectation about how events are
interconnected
Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned
response through removal of reinforcement
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a
learned response following apparent extinction
Conditioning Principles
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Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to
respond to stimuli that are similar, but not
identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g.,
responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging
when the conditioning stimulus was a bell)
Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to
respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy
will respond differently to various bells (alarms,
school, timer))
Classical Conditioning
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Is passive.
It happens to the learner when a US follows a
CS.
It depends on reflex responses
Conditioned Emotional Response
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Emotional responses may be linked to new
stimuli
Pain in dentist office -thought causes reaction
Response of Involuntary Autonomic Nervous
system “Fight or flight response”
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Linked with new stimuli and situations through
Classical Conditioning
Learned Fears are Phobias
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Phobias are based on Emotional Conditioning
A fear that persists even when no realistic
danger exists.
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Animals, waters, heights, thunder, fire, bugs
Therapy for phobias includes DesensitizationIs used to extinguish fears- anxiety and phobias
 Includes gradual exposure to phobic stimuli- short
term and more time.
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Classical Conditioning and
Ivan Pavlov
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Russian physiologist who studied digestion
Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were
presented with meat powder
Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent
Conditioning
Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response
In operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence
becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog
learns to sit up when it hears a whistle
Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s
mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning,
various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device
pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.
Operant Conditioning
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Responses followed by reinforcement cause
frequency of response to increase.
Learning is based on consequences of
responding
Responses are followed by reinforces
Example:
Wear a hat--get compliments  Wear hat
_(Antecedent)_(Reinforcement)____more get
more complements (Consequence)
Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning
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Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to
a stimulus by observing another person’s
reactions.
We can be conditioned vicariously
Operant Conditioning
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Applies to all living creatures
Can be used to alter behavior
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We associate responses with their
consequences
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Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated.
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Law of Effect: The probability of a
response is altered by the effect it has)
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Learning is strengthened each time a response is
followed by a satisfying state of affairs.
Edward
Thorndike
(Law of
Effect)
B.F. Skinner
Operant Conditioning
Characteristics
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Learner Actively “Operates on” the
environment
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Refers mainly to learning voluntary responses
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Example: T.V. Remote Pushing the button is
reinforced by gaining the result
Conditioning
Chamber
Animals take
action to satisfy
needs.
Behavior causes
consequences 
reinforces behavior
Fig. 8.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful
study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop
of water is automatically released. (A photograph of a Skinner box appears in
Positive Reinforcement
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Idea that reward affects learning
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Operant Reinforcers = any event that follows a
response and increases its probability of
occurring again.
Operant Learning
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Based on information and expectancy
A certain response (behavior)- will have a certain
effect at certain times
Operant Conditioning
Characteristics
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Contingent Reinforcement
 Reinforcement works best when given
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after - desired response has occurred.
Timing of Reinforcement is also importantOperant Reinforcement is most effective when
it rapidly follows a correct response.
Delay in reinforcement = less response
Shaping
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The gradual molding of responses to a desired
pattern
(animals taught to perform)
Beginning incremental- reinforcement till
desired response occurs
Step by step approximations- are refined
Operant Extinction
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Learned responses that are not reinforced
gradually fade away
Takes time
Spontaneous recovery still works
Superstitious Behavior
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Unnecessary responses associated with
successful Reinforcers
Appear to produce reinforcement
Skinner- pigeon study
The difference between Positive Punishment
and Negative Reinforcement:
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Reinforcement is to INCREASE frequency of behavior.
Punishment DECREASES behavior. So it's just what you do to increase or decrease behavior.
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Positive means ADD (like in math) and negative means SUBTRACT. So Positive Punishment is ADDING something to
DECREASE behavior. Negative Reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something to INCREASE behavior.
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Ex: Positive Punishment- ADDING detention to DECREASE tardiness if someone is late to class (ADD aversive
stimulus)
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Negative Reinforcement-
SUBTRACTING chores in order to INCREASE frequency of
good grades when a son or daughter
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brings home good report card (SUBTRACT aversive stimulus)
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People like to get Negative Reinforcement, whereas people usually do not
like to get Positive Punishment.
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You just have to look at whether you want the behavior to increase or decrease in
frequency, and whether something is being added or subtracted in order to get to
that point.
Negative Reinforcement
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Making a response removes an unpleasant event
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Increases responding by ending discomfort
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Headache-discomfort---take aspirin headache will be
negatively reinforced
Rat given electric shock-presses bar to remove shock
<removes unpleasant event>
Punishment is not negative reinforcement
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Both Positive and Negative
reinforcement
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Lead to increases in response (behaviors)
frequencies
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Negative – action to end discomfort
Positive- action to get reward
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Punishment
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Decreases responding
Refers to following a response with an aversive
<unpleasant> consequence
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Punishment decreases the response or the
likelihood that the response will occur again.
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Punishment occurs when a reinforcer or positive
state of affairs is removed example- privileges
Operant Reinforcers
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Primary Reinforcers
Secondary Reinforcers
Feedback
Primary Reinforcers
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Natural, Non-learned, Rooted in Biology
Produce comfort, End discomfort
Fill an immediate physical need- food, water, sex
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Actions reflect primary Reinforcers
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Intra-Cranial Stimulation
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Direct activation of pleasure centers
Example- Rat Experiments
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Primary Reinforcer
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Secondary Reinforcers
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Learned
$, praise, attention, approval
Success, affection, grades
Can be associated with a primary reinforcer (food +
secondary –praise)
Token reinforcer- a tangible , secondary reinforcer can
be exchanged for primary reinforcer
Don’t lose reinforcing value-easily
Social Reinforcers
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Learned desires for attention and approval
Attention + approval can change the behavior
Feedback
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Definition: Knowing level of degree of achieving
desired results
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Learning needs responsive environment + information
Knowledge of results information about the effect a
response had
Provides rapid learning
Improves learning and performance
Should be Frequent, Immediate, and detailed
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Operant Conditioning
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Continuous reinforcement- reinforcement
follows correct responses
Partial Reinforcement Effect- not every
response is reinforced (gambling)
Behavior is highly resistant to extinction
 Makes habit stronger
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Due to expectations for reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement