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Learning goals
Understand classical conditioning and
effectively apply its principles
Understand the basic meaning and
terminology of operant conditioning
Identify various reinforcement
schedules
Understand observational learning
Learning
a relatively permanent change in
behavior due to experience
learning processes:
make connections between 2 or more
events in the world
 respond to the effects of personal
experiences
 observation of other people’s experiences

3 main types of learning
classical conditioning

learning that 2 stimuli occur together
operant conditioning

learning that a response and its
consequence occur together
observational learning

learning through observation and modeling
Classical conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism
comes to associate events

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also called Pavlovian conditioning
builds on unlearned responses
learning through association of 2 stimuli
a neutral stimulus is associated with a meaningful
stimulus; the organism then responds to the
previously neutral stimulus as if it were the original
meaningful stimulus
Example of classical conditioning
original association is between the bottle and
drooling
there is no original association between
taking a bath and drooling
there are repeated associations between
taking a bath, then receiving the bottle
the bath and the bottle become associated so
that taking a bath produces the same
response as the bottle
taking a bath leads to drooling
Classical conditioning
terminology
unconditioned response (UCR)

natural, unlearned response to a stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

meaningful stimulus that produces a response
neutral stimulus (NS)

unmeaningful stimulus that produces no response
conditioned response (CR)

learned response through association
conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus whose meaning is learned
Principles of classical
conditioning
acquisition

initial stage of learning in which a stimulus comes
to evoke a conditioned response
extinction

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diminishing of a response when a CS occurs
repeatedly without the UCS
spontaneous recovery (reappearance of an
extinguished CR) often occurs
Examples of classical
conditioning
fears of doctors/dentists
phobias
sexual arousal to certain stimuli
fetishes
advertising
Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or
diminished if followed by punishment
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also called Skinnarian conditioning
learning by reinforcement
behavior associated with consequences
learning by associating a response with its
consequence
Principles of operant conditioning
shaping

reinforcing successive approximations toward a
desired goal
operant consequences

reinforcement

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any stimuli that increases the frequency of a response
punishment

any stimuli that decreases the frequency of a response
Reinforcement
anything that increases the frequency of a
response
can be anything desired by the organism
2 types:
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positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
Positive vs. negative
reinforcement
both increase the frequency of a response
positive reinforcement

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present a desired stimulus after a response to
strengthen the frequency of that response
example: give money for completing chores
negative reinforcement

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remove an aversive stimuli after a response to
strengthen the frequency of that response
example: take aspirin to relieve a headache
Punishment
anything that decreases the frequency of a
response
aims at weakening a response or behavior
can involve giving an aversive stimulus
(spanking) or removing a pleasant stimulus
(grounding or time-out)
Example:
You are the parent of a teenager who is getting poor
grades in school due to spending too much time
“hanging out” with friends.

Options:
 give teen money every time he/she studies; studying
increases
 praise the teen for studying; no change in studying
 nag teen when not studying and only stop nagging when
he/she is studying; studying increases
 ground the teen for every bad grade that he/she
receives; studying decreases
 ignore the low grades; no change in studying
Reinforcement schedules
fixed-ratio

reinforcement after a specific number of
responses
fixed-interval

reinforcement after a specified amount of time
variable-ratio

reinforcement after an unpredictable number of
responses
variable-interval

reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of
time
Response rates for reinforcement
schedules
Examples of reinforcement
schedules
waiter/waitress receiving a tip
paycheck from work
telemarketing bonuses
gambling
pop quizzes
fishing/hunting
product assembly work
redialing for a busy phone number
checking the mail
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs due to the observation
of others without any direct experience
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Pioneered by Albert Bandura
Key factors:
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Modeling
Imitation
Issues in observational learning:
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Acquisition of behavior
Demonstration of behavior