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Animal Research Problem of Variability of human participants Use Animals to increase control Rearing - littermates Genetics – littermates, inbred strains Experience- what they were exposed to Environmental conditions – food, water, lighting, temperature, cage size, etc. Use of animals To reduce variability To study basic processes To study special variables that can’t be tested in humans – e.g. brain function To learn more about animals Research Designs Random Groups Split litter (Matched groups) Within subjects Mixed designs Small N design (ABA design) Classical Conditioning Instrumental Conditioning Ethological methods Classical Conditioning Pavlov Digestion Salivation Dogs Inappropriate salivation Psychic secretions UCS, UCR, CS, CR, contiguity Classical Conditioning of drug related stimuli UCS = morphine UCR = Heart rate decrease CS = drug stimuli CR = ?? CR = heart rate up! Compensatory response Drug Overdose CS is different UCS = same as before CR = no compensatory response Heart rate too low – person dies Contiguity Theory Pavlov’s explanation Two events that occur closely together will become associated Temporal contiguity Spatial contiguity Methods in Classical Conditioning Tests of Contiguity theory CS – UCS temporal relationships Square wave diagram Simultaneous conditioning Delayed conditioning Short – delay Long - delay Trace conditioning results Short – delay Long - delay Backward conditioning Inhibitory Classical Conditioning Excitatory classical Conditioning A CR is produced Inhibitory classical conditioning A CR is inhibited Must first have excitatory to demonstrate inhibitory Pop quiz example Higher – Order conditioning Diagram Sequence of CSs Waterfall example Sensory Preconditioning Pair two stimuli for several trials Use one as a CS until you get CRs Test other stimulus Do you get a CR to second stimulus? Yes Pairing stimuli before training in some way makes them equivalent Evidence for S – S association in classical conditioning CS – UCS association produces conditioning Other methods: Preexposure CS pre-exposure Present CS alone for several trials (16-20trials) Pair CS with UCS in excitatory conditoning Test for CR UCS pre-exposure Present UCS alone for several trials Pair UCS with a CS Test for CR Measuring the CR Determining if CR occurs Omit the UCS Probe trials See if CR occurs Problem: Extinction occurs See if CR occurs on probe trial only (e.g. 1/15) Measuring Strength of CR Frequency –e.g. 7/10 probe trials Latency – e.g. number second to produce CR Magnitude – e.g. number of drops of saliva Discrimination A tool to measure other behaviors Pavlov – discrimination of shape by dogs CS+ paired with ucs = CR CS- not paired with ucs = no CR Experimental neurosis CS+ = circle CS- = ellipse (9:1) Dogs became neurotic Generalization A tool to study other behaviors Train on one CS (e.g. cs = red) Test on new CS’s (orange, bluish red, etc) The more similar the new CS’s the more generalization that occurs Generalizaton gradient Training one stimulus trains a whole host of stimuli Extinction As a tool to measure the strength of CR Present CS without UCS CR dies out or extinguishes Pavlov – extinction involves the active withholding of the CR Spontaneous recovery Faster relearning Instrumental Conditioning Instrumental/Operant =The consequences of a response change the future probability of the response Classical vs Instrumental Subject passive Stimuli imposed Behavior elicited S – S; S – R Autonomic mainly subject active stimuli unknown Behavior emitted R–S skeletal mainly Pre-training Procedures Deprivation 85-90% body weight Weigh dailey Calculate food amounts Handling Sampling the reinforcer Adaptation to apparatus Magazine training Pre-training (Cont.) Measure operant level Shaping Autoshaping Successive approximation Now ready to start experiment Instrumental Designs Free Operant (Skinner) Operant chamber Animal free to make response at any time DV = rate of responding (responses/unit time) Cumulative responses Cumulative recorder Interpret graphs of data Small-n design Discrete Trial Response can only occur at a time specified by the researcher (Thorndike and others) Many possible DVs Latency – straight alley, Morris water maze Speed of response – straight alley Choice – T-maze Percent correct – Stone maze, WGTA Errors – complex maze Reinforcement A reinforcer is any thing (stimulus) that increases the probability of the response that it follows. Must make sure that a stimulus actually is a reinforcer first before using it to change behavior E.g “gold stars” Types of Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement A response, followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus, increases the future probability of the response. A hungry rat presses a lever to get food Mom gives junior a cookie for picking up his toys Negative Reinforcement Also called “escape training” A response, followed by the withdrawal of the reinforcing stimulus, increases the future probability of the response A rat jumps a low hurdle and a loud noise is turned off A person, stopped at a red light, rolls up the car window to decrease the sound of a jack hammer working on the concrete curb Punishment A punisher is any thing (stimulus) that decreases the probability of the response that it follows. Must check to see that a stimulus is a punisher E.g. tantrums Types of Punishment Punishment by presentation A response, followed by the presentation of a punishing stimulus, becomes less probable in the future A rat, steps off a pedestle and gets shocked Johnny hits his sister and gets spanked by dad (What’s Johnny learning here?) Punishment by withdrawal Also called “ omission training” A response, followed by the withdrawal of a positive reinforcer, decreases the future probability of the response A rat, presses a lever, and as a result, loses access to food for 60 seconds Johnny hits his sister, and as a result, doesn’t get to watch his favorite violent cartoon show Categories of Reinforcement Primary Unlearned Physiological Food Water Sex Pain Categories of Reinforcement Secondary/Conditioned Learned Neutral initially Paired with a primary reinforcer Tokens/token economies Chimps Strip mines Categories of Reinforcement Social Attention Affection Praise Trans-situational Paired with several reinforcers Money Schedules of Reinforcement Simple Schedules (only one requirement for reinforcement) Ratio Schedules (responses) Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Interval Schedules (time) Fixed Interval Variable Interval Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio (e.g. FR10) Number of responses per reinforcement is fixed and unchanging No reinforcement for responses until the ratio is completed: last response produces reinforcer In well trained subjects: Ratio is run off all at once Post-reinforcement pause E.g. piece work Variable Ratio Variable Ratio (VR10) Number of responses required is constantly changing from one reinforcement to the next Unpredictable Best strategy: Work fast Work consistently E.g. gambling Interval Schedules Fixed Interval (FI60) Best strategy: Amount of time that must pass between reinforcements is fixed. Predictable Wait until appropriate amount of time has passed Scallop shaped records E.g. test dates Variable Interval Variable Interval (VI60) Amount of time that must pass between reinforcements is constantly changing Unpredictable Best strategy: Work consistently E.g. pop quizzes A tool for studying other behaviors Complex Schedules More than one requirement must be met Often used as tools to study other aspects of research DRL Progressive ratio Discrimination Differential responding to stimuli Sd – sets occasion for reinforcement S-delta – sets occasion for non-reinforcement As in classical conditioning, discrimination can be used as a tool to study other behaviors E.g. recognition memory in monkeys using DNMS Generalization Same as in classical conditioning Can be used to study other behaviors Reinforce behavior in presence of one stimulus, look at how the behavior generalizes to other similar stimuli E.g. taking notes in biology class – taking notes in psychology class. Extinction Also like classical conditioning Used to study other behaviors E.g. preference for a reinforced location in the Morris water maze. Study annulus crossings during extinction