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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Motivation:
Organizational Applications
Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes
Chapter 6
Learning Objectives

Explain differences between social
learning theory and reinforcement theory

Discuss how self-managing can be useful
in developing a motivation program

Describe how expectancy, equity, and
goal-setting theories are used to motivate
employees

Define intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and
how these rewards influence employee
motivation
6-3
Learning Objectives

Explain reward programs found in
high-performance organizations

Understand the strengths and
weaknesses of nontraditional reward
programs
6-4
The Sage of Stock Options

Stock options
Have replaced salary
and bonuses as
the most significant
part of executive pay
 Place a lien against the company
 When exercised, reduce the value
of other stock shares
 May reward one person and distress
others

6-5
Learning

One of the fundamental processes
underlying behavior and motivation


A relatively enduring change in behavior
occurs as a result of practice
Changes in behavior that characterize
learning may be…
Adaptive and promote effectiveness
 Non-adaptive and ineffective

6-6
Social Learning

Behavior is acquired through observation
and imitation of others in a social context
Continuous interaction of cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental determinants
 Can be positive or negative

6-7
Social Learning

Social learning theory introduces…
Vicarious learning (modeling)
 Symbolism
 Self-control


Self-efficacy, a central part of social
learning theory, has three dimensions
Magnitude
 Strength
 Generality

6-8
Pygmalion Effect
Pygmalion Effect
The enhanced learning or
performance that results from
others having positive
expectations of us.
6-9
Operant Conditioning

Learning that occurs as a consequence
of behavior


Operants are behaviors that can be
controlled by altering reinforcers and
the punishments that follow them
Behavior modification
An approach to motivation that uses
principles of operant conditioning
 Learning by reinforcement

6-10
Example of Operant Conditioning
S1
R1
S2
R2
Memo
instructing
subordinate to
prepare budget
Preparing
weekly
budgets
Receiving
valued
praise from
superior
A sense of
satisfaction
Conditioned
stimulus
Conditioned
operant
response
Reinforcing
stimulus
Unconditioned
response
Antecedent
Behavior
Consequence
6-11
Principles of Operant Conditioning

Positive reinforcement


Negative reinforcement


Strengthens a behavior because the behavior
removes some painful or unpleasant stimulus
Punishment


Action that increases the likelihood of a behavior
Undesirable consequence that results in the
suppression of the behavior that brought it about
Extinction

Decline in response rate due to nonreinforcement
6-12
Behavior Modification

Identify and define the specific behavior
Can it be seen?
 Can it be measured?


Measure or count occurrences
of the pinpointed behavior

Provides a baseline from which to
determine if the behavior is changing
6-13
Applied Behavior Modification

Conduct ABC analysis of the behavior
A = analyzing the antecedents
 B = pinpointing critical behaviors
 C = associated consequence


Then
Develop an action plan and strategies
 Evaluate the behavior

6-14
Performance Analysis Questions

Antecedent
Do employees know what is expected?
 Are the standards clear?
 Have they been communicated?
 Are they realistic?


Behavior
Can the behavior be performed?
 Could employees do it if their lives
depended on it?
 Does something prevent its occurrence?

6-15
Performance Analysis Questions

Consequence
Are consequences weighted in favor of
performance?
 Are improvements being reinforced?
 Are improvements noted, even when the
employee is below company standards?
 Is reinforcement specific?

6-16
Applied Behavior Modification
Manager’s Step-by-Step Procedure
Pinpoint
specific
behavior
Measure,
count, and
formulate
baseline
point
for critical
behaviors
Perform the
ABC analysis
• Antecedent
• Behavior
• Consequence
Form action
plan, strategies
• Positive
reinforcement
• Negative
reinforcement
• Extinction
• Punishment
Evaluate
critical behavior
Compare
baseline vs.
after-action
behaviors
Feedback to make changes
6-17
ABC Analysis - Absenteeism Problem
A
ANTECEDENT(S)
B
BEHAVIOR(S)
C
CONSEQUENCE(S)
Family problems
Personal health
Illness
Jury duty
No transportation
Company policies
Group norm
Friends visiting
Injured on way to work
Hangover
No child care facilities
Lack of proper tools/clothing
Staying home
Shopping
Oversleeping
Getting up late
Attending sporting event
Working at home
Visiting
Serving on jury
In emergency room
At doctor’s office
Public reprimand
Private reprimand
Written record & reprimand
Reduction in pay
Suspension
Firing
Social isolation from group
6-18
Reinforcement Theory

Research results
Strong evidence that OBM makes a
positive contribution to organizational
behavior
 Absenteeism rates, quality of production,
and employee safety behaviors improve

6-19
Reinforcement Theory

Criticisms
Bribery, not a real change in behavior
 Reinforcements not linked to beliefs,
values, or mental processes
 Self-reinforcement ignored
 Behavior becomes too dependent on
the reinforcer and won’t occur without it
 Perceptual differences in utilization of
positive reinforcement

6-20
Reinforcement Theory

When expressing appreciation and
reinforcing good behavior
Describe the desired behavior in
specific terms, not generalization
 Explain why the behavior is good
for the organization
 Include a personal
expression of thanks

6-21
Behavioral Self-Management (BSM)
Facing response alternatives that have
different consequences
 Selecting or modifying behavior by
managing

Cognitive processes
 Causes
 Consequences

6-22
Kafner’s Self-Regulation Model
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Self-monitoring
Self-evaluation
Self-reinforcement
“A new boss - I
wonder whether
my performance
will be good
enough. I hope so.”
“I was considered an
excellent performer
by Tony (previous
boss). He knew my
quantity and quality
of output were
excellent. I need to
find out what the new
boss considers
excellent in terms of
quantity and quality.”
“I really did an
outstanding job. The
boss smiled when we
were talking about my
performance. He’s
really a lot like Tony
(previous boss).”
6-23
Goal-Setting Theory: Key Concepts

Goal setting


Conscious goals


The process of establishing goals
Goals that a person is trying to achieve
and is aware of when directing behavior
Goal specificity

Level of performance required to achieve
the goal
6-24
Goal-Setting Theory: Key Concepts

Goal difficulty


Goal intensity


Level of performance required to achieve
a goal
Process of setting a goal or determining
how to reach it
Goal commitment

Amount of effort used to achieve a goal
6-25
Goal Setting: Core Steps
Goal-Setting
Attributes
1. Specificity
2. Difficulty
3. Intensity
4. Commitment
Final
Review
Intermediate
Review
1. Frequency
2. Exchange
of ideas
3. Modifications
1. Discussion
2. Analysis
3. Development
4. Recycling
Anticipated
Results
Improved
motivation to
• Perform
• Plan
• Organize
• Control
Feedback
6-26
Goal Setting Research

Locke and associates found that…
Specific goals lead to higher output than
do vague goals
 Achieving goals provides workers with a
sense of achievement, recognition, and
commitment
 Having a goal allows workers to compare
their performance with that of others

6-27
Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship
Need achievement
High
Job performance

Low
Easy
Moderate
Goal difficulty
Hard
6-28
Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship
Expectancy theory
High
Job performance

Low
Easy
Moderate
Hard
6-29
Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship

Goal-setting theory
B
Job performance
High
C
A = Performance
of committed
person with ability
B = Performance
of committed
person working at
full capacity
A
C = Performance
of person lacking
commitment
Low
Easy
Moderate
Goal difficulty
Hard
6-30
Participation Factor

Conflicting theories
Latham… when goal difficulty is held
constant, there is no difference in goal
commitment or performance, whether the
goal is assigned or set participatively
 Erez… participation in goal setting is
crucial to goal commitment


Findings of experiments

Participation had no effect on goal
commitment or performance
6-31
Individual Differences

Participation in goal setting may
increase job performance
Social factor of group discussion
 Motivational factor of being involved
in the goal-setting process
 Cognitive factor of information sharing

6-32
Individual Differences

Social and motivational factors increase
Performance quantity
 Learning the task
 Goal acceptance
 Group commitment
 Satisfaction


Conflicting goals

Can lead to decreased performance,
regardless of goal commitment, goal
importance, or strategies used
6-33
Criticisms of Goal Setting

Goal setting
Complex and difficult to sustain
 Works well for simple jobs, but not for
complex jobs
 Encourages game playing.
 Is used as another check on employees


Goal accomplishment

Can become an obsession
6-34
Motivation Theory: Key Conclusions

Managers
Can influence employee motivation
 Must remember that ability, competence,
and opportunity all affect motivation
 Must continually monitor employees’
needs, abilities, goals, preferences
 Must channel self-motivated behavior
into productive results

6-35
Motivation Theory: Key Conclusions

Managers
Are role models who influence employee
motivation
 Must provide incentives for employees
 Should establish moderately difficult goals
to direct behavior
 Should provide jobs that offer equity, task
challenge, diversity, need satisfaction
 Must energize, sustain, and direct
motivation

6-36
Organizational Reward Systems

Main objectives of reward programs
Getting qualified people to join the
organization
 Keeping employees
coming to work
 Motivating employees
to achieve high levels
of performance

6-37
The Reward Process
Intrinsic
rewards
Ability
and skill
Performance
results:
individual
Motivation to
exert effort
Performance
evaluation
Experience
Satisfaction
Extrinsic
rewards
Feedback
6-38
Lawler’s Conclusions

Reward satisfaction is influenced by…
How much is received and how much
the person feels should be received
 Comparisons with others


People differ in the…
Rewards they desire
 The importance they place on them


Some rewards are satisfying because
they lead to other rewards
6-39
Reward Packages

Any reward package should be…
Sufficient to satisfy basic needs
 Considered equitable
 Individually oriented

6-40
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards

Extrinsic Rewards
Salary, wages, fringe benefits
 Interpersonal rewards
 Recognition and promotions


Intrinsic Rewards
Completion
 Achievement
 Personal growth
 Autonomy

6-41
Rewards, Turnover, Absenteeism

Managers can…
 Influence employee attendance behavior
 Punish, establish bonuses, and allow
employee participation in developing plans

Absenteeism reduction is determined by…
 The perceived value of the rewards
 The amount of the rewards
 Whether employees see a relationship
between attendance and rewards
6-42
Rewards and Job Performance

Key points
Each person has different needs and
perceptions, so outcomes have different
values
 Managers must consider individual
differences when choosing rewards
 Valued rewards can result in the exertion
of effort and high levels of performance

6-43
Commitment Attitudes

Commitment to an organization
involves...
A sense of identification with
the organization’s goals
 Involvement in organizational
duties
 A feeling of loyalty for the
organization

6-44
Organizational Commitment

Use intrinsic rewards to develop
organizational commitment
Provide achievement opportunities
 Recognize achievement when it occurs
 Develop intrinsic reward systems that
focus on personal importance or selfesteem

6-45
Reward Systems & High Performance

New, innovative, but untested reward
systems
Cafeteria-style fringe benefits
 Banking time off
 Skill-based pay
 Gainsharing

6-46
Reward Criticisms

According to Kohn, rewards…
Injure relationships
 Are really punishment
 Have a Skinner bias
 Ignore reason
 Discourage risk taking

6-47