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Transcript
Learning,Memory, and Creative Problem Solving I. Learning: Principles and Applications Stimulus Response Conditioning Reinforcement Rewards Punishment Shaping A. Classical Conditioning A simple form of learning in which a stimulus (something that produces a reaction) calls forth a response (the reaction) Pavlov Russian Physiologist who discovered that dogs could learn to associate one thing with another (stimulus-response) Ex. “Pavlov’s dog” experiment involving bell and food Salivation B. Operant Conditioning Type of learning that takes place as a result of consequences “Reinforcement”- process by which a stimulus increases the chance that a behavior will occur (ex. “Skinner Box”) Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner Operant Response A form of learning in which a specific action (an operant response) is made to occur either more frequently or less frequently by manipulating its consequences in the environment. Change in Environment Change in response Gets Dog stands Dog food again stands An operant response “operates” on the environment and causes it to change in some way. The environment, in turn, causes the behavior to change in some way. Operant Conditioning Versus Classical Conditioning In Classical Conditioning, the subject’s response has no consequences; it produces no change in the environment. The dog gets the food after the bell is rung whether or not he salivates to the bell. His behavior doesn’t matter. In Operant Conditioning, the dog has to stand up to get the food. His behavior does matter. Positive Reinforcer Increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when applied Ex. “Exercising because being in shape feels good” “Studying a subject because the material is interesting” Negative Reinforcer Increase the frequency of the behavior when something is removed Ex. “Exercising to avoid getting fat or out of shape” “Studying to avoid a bad grade” Reinforcement Versus Punishment Reinforcement Positive Stimulus is ... Negative Punishment Positive Negative Stimulus is ... Stimulus is ... Stimulus is ... Removed Presented Removed Behavior... Behavior... Behavior... Behavior... Increases Increases Presented Decreases Decreases Analyzing Behavior The A B C ‘s of Operant Conditioning Consequences Key point: reinforcers and punishers are defined by their effects on behavior, not by your intentions... While watching the 3 Stooges, 5-year-old Billy pokes his 4year-old sister. His father says, “Stop that!” A minute later, Billy does it again, and his father yells at him. A few seconds later, Billy laughs and gives little Kelly another poke. In terms of operant conditioning, why did the poking response increase rather than decrease? Answer: the scoldings are a reinforcer. What if… Billy’s father leaves the room for a few minutes to answer the telephone. While he is out of the room, Billy stops poking his sister. But when his father comes back in, Billy starts doing it again. Why? Punishment Unwanted events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow when they are applied. Some effects: doesn’t teach alternatives Must be consistent to work Can create anger/hostility Can create the opposite effect Can confuse Shaping Application of Operant Conditioning where the teaching of a complex task is achieved by rewarding simpler steps in the process Skinner Studied behavior using rat in cage deprived of food (“Skinner Box”) Developed an educational method called “Programmed Learning” based on shaping Cognitive Factors in Learning Latent Learning Learning that remains hidden until it is needed E.C. Tolman concluded that learning takes place even when not rewarded. Incidental learning lies dormant until it is needed for something (ex. rat in maze) Observational Learning Knowledge and skill is obtained by observing and imitating others Albert Bandura concluded that this form of learning accounts for much human learning (ex. “mimicking parents”) Media Learning Many believe that observational learning is the reason humans are so aggressive is from over-exposure of violence in the media (television, computer and video images) D. Learning Systems PQ4R – Study Reading Learning System Preview Question Read Reflect Recite Review Mind Mapping – Non-traditional notetaking system II. Memory The Memory Span Test A Measure of the Capacity of Short-Term Memory Your are to read a short list of digits or letters. Immediately afterwards, you try to recite all the items in their original order. P R T Y C U G You can increase the number of letters you remember by grouping them into CHUNKS, like P A R. You can remember about 7 chunks, regardless of how many letters they contain. P R F H Z T K Forgetting Memory: The capacity to retain information over time. Encoding: the conversion of incoming information into a form that can be stored in memory. Storage: maintaining information in memory over a period of time. Retrieval: the process of searching for stored information and bringing it to mind. Types of encoding: •Visual encoding - the processing of images •Acoustic encoding-the processing of sound, particularly the sound of words •Semantic encoding - the processing of meaning; particularly the meaning of words. Three steps of memory information processing: • Encoding- (processing and combining of received information) • Storage-(creation of a permanent record of the encoded information) • Retrieval-(calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in some process or activity) 7 Steps in the Memory Process Organize the information Intend to remember Test yourself repeatedly Space out learning Several senses Overlearn the material Study before sleep Creative Problem Solving The Matchstick Problem How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? The Matchstick Problem Solution to the matchstick problem The Candle-Mounting Problem Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board? The Candle-Mounting Problem Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container Connect the dots using 4 straight lines Count every " F" in the following text: FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF YEARS OF PRACTICE. What if. . . it rained tennis shoes on weekends? everyone looked the same? animals had people for pets? you had a dragon for a next door neighbor? cows could fly? Picasso had painted the Last Supper? people were magnetic? everyone lived on their own island? the oceans were made of chocolate pudding? everyday at 2:00 PM gravity went haywire for twenty minutes? nothing could be thrown away? works of art came to life? all the art in the world was stolen by aliens? O Iny srmat people can raed tihs. Cdnuolt blveiee that I cluod aulacity uesdnatnrd what I was Rdanieg. The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy. It deosn’t mttaer in what oredr the ltteers in a word are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is that the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can still raed it wouthit a porbelm. This is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, But the word as a wlohe. Amzanig huh? Yaeh and I awlyas tghuhot slpeling was ipmorantt!