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Chapter 5
Consumer Learning
Consumer
Learning
and Memory
and Memory
Why Marketers are Concerned about How
Consumers Learn
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Marketers want to “teach” consumers about
their products
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product attributes
where to buy them
how to use and dispose of them
They want to know how effective they have
been in communicating with the consumer
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directly, through advertisements
Indirectly, through product appearance,
packaging, price and distribution channels
What is Learning?
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Generally, learning is a process by which
changes occur in the content or organization
of an individual’s long-term memory
From a marketing standpoint, learning can be
thought of as the process by which
individuals acquire the purchase and
consumption knowledge and experience that
they apply to future related behavior
Range of Learning Situations
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Learning occurs at various levels of consumer
involvement
Low-level involvement: consumers have little
or no motivation to process the information
High-involvement learning: consumers are
highly motivated to process the information
Learning Theories
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There are many theories about how people
learn
They fall into two general categories:
Behavioral learning theories
Cognitive theories
Behavioral Learning Theories
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Are also referred to as stimulus-response theories
because based on premise that observable
responses to specific external stimuli signal
learning has taken place
When a person responds in a predictable way to a
known stimulus, he or she is said to have learned
There are two behavioral theories with relevance
to marketing:
Classical conditioning
Instrumental/operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning
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The theory that conditioned learning results
when a stimulus that is paired with a stimulus
that elicits a known response serves to
produce the same response when used alone
Classical Conditioning
Schematic Presentation of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned
Stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned
Stimulus (US)
Elicits
Unconditioned
Response (UR)
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The use of a well-known, admired individual
to advertise a product can condition
consumers to have positive feelings about
the product
“Cause marketing”
Strategic Applications of Classical
Conditioning
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Three basic concepts derive from classical
conditioning
Repetition
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
1. Repetition
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Increases the strength of the association
between a conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus (learning)
It is used by advertisers when scheduling
media exposure for an advertising campaign
Too much repetition can lead to advertising
wearout
Consumers may become annoyed with
repetitive ads and develop a negative image
of the product as a result
2. Stimulus Generalization
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Learning relies not only on repetition, but on
peoples’ ability to generalize--that is, respond
in the same way to slightly different stimuli
Explains why some manufacturers try to
make their generic/store brands similar in
appearance to name brands
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Marketers use this principle to take
advantage of a well-known and trusted
brand in a number of ways
Product line extensions
Product form extension
Product category extension
Referred to as the halo effect
3. Stimulus Discrimination
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Opposite of stimulus generalization
Results in the selection of a specific stimulus
from among similar stimuli
Forms the basis for marketers’ positioning
strategy
Permits marketers to differentiate their
product from competitors’ (through, e.g.
different features, colors, ingredients, etc.)
Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
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B.F. Skinner
Learning occurs through trial and error
Habits are formed as a result of rewards for
certain behaviors
Consumers who try different brands, models,
styles until they find the one that “fits” are
engaged in instrumental learning
Operant Conditioning
Schematic Presentation of Operant Conditioning
Increased or Decreased
Probability of Response
Reinforcement
A reward given to acknowledge a desired
behavior and increase the probability it will
be repeated
Positive reinforcement
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Events that strengthen the likelihood of a specific
response
Negative reinforcement
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A negative outcome that also serves to
encourage a specific behavior
Fear appeals
Punishment
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Punishment discourages behavior as
opposed to encouraging behavior to avoid a
negative result
Extinction
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When a learned response is no longer
reinforced, it diminishes to the point of
extinction—i.e., there is no longer a link
between the stimulus and the expected
reward
Strategic Applications of Instrumental
Conditioning
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Customer Satisfaction
In order to keep its customers, a marketer or
business must maximize positive
reinforcement
This can be done through the product itself
Can also be done with other elements of the
purchase situation
Reinforcement Schedules
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The pattern in which reinforcements are
given
Marketers have found that while product
quality needs to remain high to satisfy
consumers, non-product positive
reinforcement does not have to be offered
every time
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Three types of reinforcement schedules:
Continuous/total (every time)
Systematic/fixed ratio (every “nth” time)
Random/variable ratio
Reinforcement Schedules & Forgetting
Intermittent Reinforcement
Behavior Maintenance
Behavior Maintenance
Continuous Reinforcement
Time
Forgetting occurs more quickly
Time
Forgetting occurs gradually over time
and the residual effects of learning persist
Cognitive Learning Theory
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Learning based on mental activity (i.e.
thinking and problem-solving)
Unlike simpler organisms, we learn not only
by trial and error, but by
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searching for information
evaluating the information, and
making a decision about what is best for us
Marketing Implications of Cognitive
Learning Theory
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Primary implication is to emphasize the
importance of providing information to
consumers
Providing information can be a promotional
strategy as well
Cognitive Associative Learning
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Also called Neo-Pavlovian theory
Learning involves not only the acquisition of
new reflexes; it is the acquisition of new
knowledge about the world
Under this theory, consumers are viewed as
information seekers who use logical and
perceptual relations among events, along
with their own preconceptions, to form a
sophisticated representation of the world
Implications for Marketers
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Marketers draw on both cognitive and
operant conditioning theories
Providing information about a product (e.g.,
eggs are OK to eat) draws on cognitive
theory
Providing rewards (e.g., frequent flyer miles,
coupons, etc.) draws on classical
conditioning theory
Vicarious (Observational) Learning
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The process through which individuals learn
behavior by observing the behavior of others
and the consequences of such behavior
Role models tend to be people consumers
admire because of traits such as appearance,
accomplishment, skill, or social class
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Another alternative form of observational
learning involves representation of negative
consequences of not using the advertised
product
Brand Loyalty
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A consumer’s consistent preference for and
purchase of a specific brand
In high-involvement purchases (e.g., a car)
it reduces risk and facilitates selection
In low-involvement purchases (e.g., tissues)
it saves time and effort
Brand loyalty generally results from
consistent positive experiences with a
company and/or its products
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There has been a recent decline in brand
loyalty
Boredom or dissatisfaction with the products
Variety-seeking
Increased concern with price
To counter these actions, marketers have
adopted a number of programs (e.g.,
frequent flyer) that reward brand loyalty