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Transcript
Social Psychology
Chapter 14
1
Social Psychology
Social Thinking
 The Fundamental Attribution Error
 Attitudes and Actions
Social Influence
 Conformity and Obedience
 Group Influence
 Lessons From the Social Influence
Studies
2
Social Psychology
Social Relations
 Prejudice
 Aggression
 Attraction
 Altruism
 Conflict and Peacemaking
3
Social Psychology
“We cannot live for ourselves alone.”
Herman Melville
Social psychology is the scientific study of how
we think about, influence, and relate to one
another.
4
The Fundamental Attribution Error
When analyzing another’s behavior, there is a
tendency to overestimate the influence of
personal traits, and underestimate the effects of
the situation
5
The Fundamental Attribution Error
• Experiment: Even when students were informed
that a young woman had been instructed to act
icy or warm, they still attributed her behavior to
her personal traits (Napolitan & Geothals, 1979)
• Cultural differences
– People in East Asian culture tend to be more
sensitive to the power of situations
6
The Fundamental Attribution Error
• When we explain our behavior, we are sensitive
to situational influence
– Also for people we have seen in many contexts
• We are more likely to commit the F.A.E. when
we disapprove of the stranger’s behavior
• Taking the stranger’s point of view can help
decrease incidence of the F.A.E.
– Reflecting on our past self also switches our
perspective
7
Political Effects of Attribution
• How to explain poverty or unemployment?
– Political conservatives often blame the
personal traits of the poor and unemployed
– Social scientists are more likely to blame past
and present situations
• Poor education, lack of opportunity, discrimination,
etc.
Our attributions have real consequences
8
Attitudes and Actions
• Attitudes are feelings, based on our
beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a
particular way to objects, people, and
events
9
Attitudes affect Actions
• Particularly when external influences are
minimal, and attitude is stable, specific,
and easily recalled
• Experiment: people given vivid information
changing their attitude
– Informed them about tanning, linking it to skin
cancer
– had lighter skin a month later compared to a
group not having their attitude influenced
10
Or: Actions affect Attitudes
• Cooperative actions can build an attitude
of team loyalty
• Attitudes follow behavior
– Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
– Role-playing
– Cognitive dissonance
11
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
• In the Korean War, Chinese communists
solicited cooperation from US army prisoners by
asking them to carry out small errands.
• People who have first agreed to a small request
are more likely to comply later with a larger
request
• To get people to agree to something big, start
small and build
12
Role-Playing Affects Attitudes
• In many life stages, we take on new roles
– sets of behavioral expectations about a
social position
• May feel phony at first, as if “acting” the
role
– “Fake it until you make it”
13
Role-Playing Affects Attitudes
• Zimbardo (1972) assigned the roles of guards
and prisoners to random students. Guards and
prisoners developed role-appropriate attitudes.
• Individual differences – not everyone gave into
the situation
14
Why do actions affect attitude?
Cognitive dissonance theory: We feel
discomfort when beliefs don’t match with our
actions or other thoughts. To relieve this
tension, we may change our beliefs and
attitudes to fit our choices
– If we have chosen to support a party or president,
we will change our understandings to fit the
policies
– Foot in the door: if I have taken a small action to
help someone, I decide I must have wanted to
help, and then it’s easier to get me to help more
– Fake it till you make it: Make yourself act kindly,
15
and kind intentions will grow.
Social Psychology
Social Influence
 Conformity and Obedience
 Group Influence
16
Conformity and Obedience
• Chameleon effect: we take on the emotional
tones of those around us, imitating others’
expressions, postures, and voice tones
• When students worked beside people who
rubbed their own faces or shook a foot, the
students tended to do so too (Chatrand & Bargh,
1999)
• Automatic mimicry helps us empathize, to feel
what others feel
17
Group Pressure and Conformity
• Conformity:
adjusting our
behavior or thinking
to coincide with a
group standard
18
Group Pressure and Conformity
• Solomon Asch (1955) asked “which line is the
same length as the standard?”
– Before subject’s turn to answer, confederates say
“Line 3”
– More than 1/3 of subjects conformed to wrong answer
19
Group Pressure and Conformity
We are more likely to conform when we
– Are made to feel incompetent or insecure
– Are in a group with at least three people
– Are in a group in which everyone else agrees
– Admire the group’s status and attractiveness
– Have not already committed to any response
– Know that others in the group will observe our
behavior
– Are from a culture that strongly encourages
respect for social standards
20
Why Do We Conform?
• To avoid rejection or gain approval
– Responding to social norms
• Because we are open-minded and were
convinced by new information from the
group
• Whether conformity is perceived as good
or bad depends on our values
• Conformity rates are lower in individualistic
cultures like the U.S.
21
Obedience
• People give into social pressures.
What about outright commands?
• Stanley Milgram (1963) investigated
the effects of authority on obedience
22
The Milgram Experiment
• You, as the “teacher”, must shock the “learner”
if he gives a wrong answer
• With each wrong answer, increase the voltage
• The “learner” appears in pain, the experimenter
says you must continue
23
Milgram Experiment: Results
24
More Milgram Obedience Results
• In later experiments, Milgram found that obedience
was highest when
– The person giving orders was close at hand and
perceive to be a legitimate authority figure
– The authority figure was supported by a respected,
well-known institution
– The victim was depersonalized or at a distance
25
Lessons from the Conformity and
Obedience Studies
• Social influences can make people
conform to falsehoods or give in to cruelty
“I was only following orders.”
– Adolf Eichmann, Director of Nazi deportation of Jews to
concentration camps
26
Group Influence
• One of the first social psychology experiments
(Triplett, 1898):
– Adolescents would wind a fishing reel faster in the
presence of someone doing the same thing
• Group Influences
– Social Facilitation
– Social Loafing
– Deindividuation
27
Social Facilitation
• Social facilitation: stronger responses on
simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of
others
• What you do well, you are likely to do even
better in front of an audience
28
Home Team Advantage
29
Social Loafing
• When performing a task as a group,
people tend to exert less effort toward a
common goal
30
Social Loafing
• People acting as part of a group feel less
accountable, worry less about what others
think of them
31
Deindividuation
• Group situations that foster anonymity
may lead to a loss of self-restraint
– Have we seen a loss of self-restraint among
the Occupy Wall Street protestors?
– How about the mob in Lybia that captured
Khadfi?
32
Group Polarization
• Group polarization:
strengthening of a
group’s preexisting
attitudes through
discussions within the
group
33
Groupthink
• In a deeply cohesive group, members may try to
reach consensus without critically evaluating
ideas
– Fraternities and sororities
34
Social Psychology
Social Relations
 Prejudice
 Aggression
 Attraction
 Altruism
 Conflict and Peacemaking
35
Prejudice
• An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude
toward a group and its members
36
How Prejudiced Are People?
• Open prejudice has waned
37
Ingroup and Outgroup
• We have a need to belong and have a group
identity
– Ingroup bias: we have a tendency to favor our own
group
38
Emotional Roots of Prejudice
• Scapegoat theory: prejudice offers an
outlet for anger by providing someone to
blame
39
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
• Forming categories
– When we categorize people into social or
ethnic groups, we overestimate their
similarities
– The other-race effect: tendency to recall
faces of one’s own race more accurately than
faces of other races (Irving Teranishi and me)
• Emerges during infancy (between 3 and 9 months)
40
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
• Remembering vivid cases
– Violent cases are readily available to our
memory and feed our stereotypes
• James Byrd Jr., black man who dragged to death
in Texas in 1998
• Matthew Shepard, gay man who died tied to barb
wire fence in Wyoming
41
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
• Believing the world is just
– People have a tendency to justify their
culture’s social systems.
• Sitting in the back of the bus
42
Aggression
• Aggression: any verbal or physical
behavior intended to hurt or destroy
43
The Biology of Aggression
• Genetic Influences
• Neural Influences
• Biochemical Influences
44
The Biology of Aggression
• Biochemical Influences
– Testosterone circulates in the blood, and
influences neural control of aggression
– Alcohol also unleashes aggressive
responses to frustration
45
The Psychology of Aggression
• Psychological factors that trigger
aggression
– Frustration or rejection
– Learning that aggression is rewarding
– Observing models of aggression
46
The Psychology of Aggression
Frustration-aggression principle:
• Frustration creates anger, which can generate
aggression
47
The Psychology of Aggression
• Learning that aggression is rewarding
– Children whose aggression successfully
intimidates other children may become more
aggressive
48
The Psychology of Aggression
• Observing models of aggression
– We often imitate what a model says and does
49
The Psychology of Aggression
• Observing models of aggression
– X-rated films and women-hating song lyrics
can teach aggressive behavior
• How does that affect men’s beha
50
Other Social Psychology Issues
•
•
•
•
Attraction and Romantic Love
Altruism
Bystander Psychology
Conflict and Cooperation
51
Psychology of Attraction
Ingredients for attraction:
– Proximity
– Physical attractiveness
– Similarity
52
Proximity
• People are most inclined to like (and
marry) those who are nearby
• Mere exposure effect:
– A Taiwanese man wrote 700+ letters to his
girlfriend proposing marriage. She married the
mailman.
53
Proximity/Familiarity
• People prefer the candidate whose image
had been (secretly) blended with their own
54
Physical Attractiveness
• Physical appearance
most important factor in
first impressions
“I constantly think about my looks”
Men
Women
Canada
18%
20%
USA
17%
27%
Mexico
40%
45%
Venezuela
47%
65%
55
In the Eye of the Beholder
• Youthful physical features appear to be
universally considered attractive, at least for
females
56
Similarity
• Lasting friends and couples are likely to
share attitudes, beliefs, and interests,
among other factors
• We also like those who like us
57
Romantic Love
Passionate Love
Aroused state of
positive absorption in
another
Companionate Love
Deep affectionate
attachment for those
with whom our lives
are intertwined
Nothing
58
Passionate Love
• Two-factor theory of emotion: Many
emotions are an arousal state plus a label
• Studies show: Men getting their heart rate up
by any means, from exercise to erotica, felt
more attracted to a woman they met while
still stirred up, attributing their arousal state to
the attraction
• Passionate love may be physical, as
misattributed, and temporary
59
Romantic Love
• Transition to companionate love is
adaptive
– Shift focus to family and parenting
• Key ingredients for lasting relationships
– Equity: both partners receive in proportion to
what they give
– Self-disclosure: revealing intimate aspects of
yourself to others
– Romance? Overvaluing this increases divorce
60
Altruism
• Altruism is the unselfish concern for the
welfare of others
Wesley Autrey jumped
onto subway tracks to
save a fallen stranger
from oncoming train
61
Bystander Intervention
• In 1964, Kitty Genovese was raped and
murdered as 38 neighbors heard but did
nothing
• Was this simply the opposite of Altruism,
or is something more complex going on?
62
Bystander Intervention:
Deciding whether to Intervene
63
The Bystander Effect
• Study: participants
heard a crash and yell
in the next room
• Results showed the
Bystander effect:
any given bystander
is less likely to give
aid if other bystanders
are present
64
Conflict
• Conflict: a perceived incompatibility of
actions, goals, or ideas
• Mirror-image perceptions: mutual views
often held by people in conflict
– Each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful,
and the other side as evil and aggressive
65
Cooperation
• Superordinate goals: shared goals that
override differences among people and
require their cooperation
• Members of interracial groups who form
teams and work together come to feel
friendly toward one another
66