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Transcript
UNIT 4 SOCIAL RELATIONS AND INFLUENCE 1 Social Perception 2 What is Social Perception? Social perception refers to the process by which we form impressions of other people’s traits and personalities. 3 A Social Psychologist studying social perception would: Form an impression about the traits & characteristics of the person understudied. Try to understand the causes of the person’s behavior 4 IMPORTANT CONCEPT IN SOCIAL PERCEPTION Impression Formation Attribution 5 Impression Formation Impression formation is a process of organizing diverse information into a unified impression of the other person. Information about other people comes to us from various sources, such as:– – – – Reading Third party Witness from afar Interact directly Based on all the information we obtained we form an impression of the person/event. The bits of information that we received about the person/event we then integrate them into a coherent picture and make a conclusion. 6 The Impression/judgment that we make about a person are obtained through: Attending to non-verbal cues (facial expressions, body posture) Incorporating more detailed and descriptive characteristics (personality traits give an overall impression) 7 Attribution Attribution refers to the process through which an observer infers the causes of another’s behavior. For example, If a women performs a favor for us; – Why is she doing it? – Is she doing it because she is a generous person Or, is she doing it because she have an ulterior motive? Thus, attribution process explains why people act as they do. 8 Attributions are made based on: A dispositional attribution (internal states of the person who perform it). Lucy learned that her neighbour is unemployed. Lucy might judge her neighbour as lazy, irresponsible or lacking in ability. A situational attribution (external factors, ie. factors in the person’s environment). Lucy learned that her neighbour is unemployed. Lucy might attribute his unemployment to the scarcity of jobs, employment discrimination, economic conditions or company having problems. 9 Social Cognition 10 What is Social Cognition? Social cognition focuses on how people think about social events (about a person/ a situation). It is the study of social judgment, whereby a judgment refers to the assignment of an object/event to a cognitive category. 11 We do not store/encode all the information in our memory only focus on certain aspects. So, how do we decide which information to focus on? Social Cognition research has shown that people use Schemas to encode incoming information. 12 What is Schemas? A schema is a knowledge structure in memory that organizes all our knowledge about a particular domain (e.g. football, fashion, food, etc). A Schema is a well organized structure of cognitions about some social entity, such as person, group, role and event. 13 The importance of schemas: Help to recognize important aspects of situations or stimulus Enable us to remember information better, and process information quickly. Can fill in gaps and knowledge Help people to interpret and evaluate new information. 14 Types of Schemas Person Schemas Self Schemas Group Schemas Role Schemas Event Schemas 15 Person Schemas Person Schemas are cognitive structure that describes the personalities of other individuals. Person Schemas organize our conceptions of others personalities and enables us to develop expectations about other’s behavior. 16 Self Schemas Self Schemas are structures that organize our conceptions of our own qualities & characteristics indicate the dimensions that you use to think about yourself 17 Group Schemas Group Schemas are schemas regarding the members of a particular social group or social category. – Male are more independent, dominant, rational, competitive & stable in handling crisis. – Female are more emotional, sensitive, gentle, expressive, helpful, patient, likes gossiping. We are able to make quick judgment about the people, even though we have minimal information about them. They allow us to form impressions of people and predict their behavior merely by knowing the group to which they belong 18 Role Schemas Role Schemas indicate what attributes & behavior are typical of persons occupying a particular role in a group. Observers might use a role schemas to understand and to predict the behavior of the role occupant. 19 Event Schemas Event Schemas are schemas regarding important, recurring social events. Examples; Graduation, Hari Raya, Wedding ceremony etc. Event Schemas specifies the activities that constitutes the events, the predetermined order or sequences of the event. 20 Social Influence 21 What is Social Influence? Social influence is the area of social psychology that explores how people are affected by the real or imagined pressure of other individuals or a group. The influence may be intentional or unintentional. 22 Social Influence Basically, social influence is the “process of inducing change in people”, through the following process:– Conformity – Compliance – Obedience 23 What is Conformity? Conformity can be defined as the tendency for people to yield to real or imagined social pressure. It is a change in a person's behavior or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure form a person or a group of people. Conformity occurs when a person changes his/her attitude or behavior on his/her own to fulfill social norms, or out of a desire to follow the beliefs or standard of others. 24 Factors that can influence conformity Group size and group unanimity When there is group cohesiveness and commitment among members, the chances of conformity is higher. Type of person For example personality, gender, self esteem, male/females oriented tasks or social status can influence conformity. When people are in ambiguous situations When people have reason to doubt their own judgments - feelings of insecurity in the decision When people tend to follow the lead of a high-status individual - to avoid punishment Rewards and punishments 25 Why do we conform? Two basic sources of influence: – Normative social influence: Need to be liked, accepted by others – Informational social influence: Need to be correct; to behave in accordance with reality 26 When do we not conform? Self-aware people (private vs. public) - When people are privately self-aware they are less likely to conform; Self-presentation if one is trying to present himself as intelligent, he will be perceived as more intelligent if he does not conform The need for individuation, that is the desire to maintain one’s uniqueness or the desire for personal control. Behavior that shows that you are exactly like others is avoided. Behavior that greatly restricts your personal freedom. 27 What is Compliance? Compliance is a type of conformity that occurs when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior, even though their private beliefs have not changed. Compliance is a special kind of conformity that gets behavior change without changing your attitude a behavior that is motivated by a desire to gain a reward or avoid punishment. A person changes his/her attitude or behavior in response to another's direct request. Simply asking someone to perform a task is a request for compliance. 28 Strategies that produces compliance: The Foot- in- the door technique The Door-in-the-face technique The That’s-not-all Technique The Lowball Technique 29 The Foot- in- the door technique A technique of social influence in which the target of social influence is first asked to agree to a small request, but later is asked to comply with a larger one. 30 The Door-in-the-face technique A technique of social influence in which a larger request, to which refusal is expected is then followed by a smaller one. 31 The That’s-not-all Technique The that’s-not-all technique is a technique of social influence in which a customer is offered a deal at an initial, often inflated price, then immediately after making the initial offer, the salesperson offers an incentive, discount or bonus to clinch the deal. 32 The Lowball Technique A technique in which an initial agreement is reached, but then the seller reveals additional costs. 33 What is Obedience? Obedience can be defined as a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority (teachers, parents, leaders, boss) It is an act of compliance/following orders without question because they come from a legitimate authority. Although acts of compliance may be impermanent this does not mean they are trivial. 34 Social Relations: Prejudice Discriminations Aggression Pro-social behavior 35 Prejudice & Discrimination “John thinks that all Jews are self-centered and unfeeling people always out to used others for their own benefits” – An attitude or belief about someone based solely on our stereotypes. “Therefore, John tries not to get too close to them. He literally tries to get out of their way as much as possible” – An active outworking of these beliefs. 36 Prejudice Prejudice is exhibited when members of one group (In-group) display a negative attitude and behavior towards members of another group (out-group) A negative prejudgment of a group or group member that is often unwarranted and based on limited, insufficient information A prejudice can be conceptualized as a negative attitude comprising emotional, 37 cognitive, and behavioral components. Causes of Prejudice The Authoritarian Personality - some individuals are consistently prejudiced against many minority groups. They report having punitive, status-anxious parents and tend to describe themselves and their parents in an unrealistically positive manner and minorities in an unrealistically negative manner. Authoritarian people show submission to authority, conventionality, and hostility toward out-groups. Can be explained as product of social-learning. 38 More Prejudice Social Ideologies and Prejudice - both political conservatism and religiousness are correlated with prejudice. Social Groups and Prejudice - group research shows that when people are arbitrarily divided into groups, they show bias in favor of their ingroup. Tajfel's social identity theory argues that this bias results from people's motivation to boost their self-esteem through a positive social 39 theory. Anti-gay Prejudice Prejudice toward gay men and lesbians is associated with being male, religious, conservative, and supportive of traditional sex roles. It is more common in rural areas and in certain regions of the United States than others. Individuals tend to be less prejudiced toward gay people the more acquaintance they have with them. 40 Reducing Prejudice The inter-group contact hypothesis holds that certain kinds on conduct between groups (for example, contact that is socially supported, equal status, and in pursuit of common goals) lead to a reduction of prejudice. Cooperative, rather than competitive classrooms, which have students work together on projects, are more effective in increasing interaction between students from different groups. 41 Reducing Prejudice Positive experiences with an out-group member is most likely to lead to changed attitudes toward the out-group when the member is seen as typical of his or her group. Prejudice is a significant cause of residential segregation. Housing integration can be effective in reducing stereotypes and prejudice. Mass media can reduce prejudice through favorable depictions both of minority groups and of interactions among different groups. 42 Discrimination Overt acts that express prejudice and treat members of a group unfairly compared to members of other groups. Influencing another’s interest based on our beliefs about that person. Actual harm to another caused by our prejudicial beliefs. Most discriminations is negative. Prejudice will lead to discrimination 43 Types of discrimination Active discrimination – – Mild slander – Violence – Murder Covert/ Subtle discrimination 44 Forms of Subtle discrimination Failure to act – Refuse to act when the situation calls for. – E.g. Did not cooperate just because she’s a lady Tokenism – Assisting someone just because of their race, sex or age can make one feels humiliated – Lead to a sense of betrayal and bitterness Reverse discrimination – Alter ones behavior when the targeted person is around – People who hold prejudicial attitude may react too favorably as a way of showing they are not prejudice but gives out the opposite message. 45 Aggression Aggression: Behavior intended to inflict harm on another person Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: The theory that frustration causes aggression De individuation: A loss of individuality, often experienced in a group, that results in a breakdown of internal restraints against deviant behavior. 46 Factors that Influence Aggression Biological Groups - Freud and Lorenz believed that aggression is an instinct that must be vented. Evolutionary theory - suggests that although aggression has survival value, it occurs only under certain circumstances. Cultural Influences - Aggression is cross-culturally variable. War may occur particularly among groups competing for scarce resources. Multicultural Perspectives: Wars and the Cycle of Violence - Across cultures, wars tend to increase domestic violence in countries after they are over. 47 Individual Differences & Aggression Aggressiveness as a Trait Aggressiveness is a trait that is relatively stable over time and is in part due to hereditary factors. Physiology and Aggression - Aggression is influenced by specific brain structures and may be affected by testosterone, alcohol, and marijuana. 48 Environmental Factors Aggression as a Response to Aggression - Aggression often elicits counter aggression. Physical Pain - Pain frequently incites aggression. Although unlearned, the link between pain and aggression can be influenced by learning. Heat - People tend to be more aggressive in hot environments. 49 More Environmental Factors Frustration - The original frustration-aggression hypothesis held that frustration always leads to aggression and that aggression is always the result of frustration. – Research suggests that arbitrary, strong frustrations without reasonable explanations particularly incite aggression. Arousal - Arousal can energize dominant learned aggressive responses Arousal created by exercise or by viewing erotica can increase subsequent aggression. 50 Economic Frustration and Aggression Frustration can contribute to social upheavals The J-curve theory holds that violent social revolutions are most likely to occur when a prolonged period of economic development is followed by a brief period of economic reversal. 51 Media and Aggression Aggressive Cues and the Weapons Effect Stimuli (such as weapons) frequently associated with aggression may become learned aggressive cues. The Effects of TV Violence on Children Experimental, quasi-experimental, and correlational studies suggest a causal relationship between children's viewing violent TV and behaving aggressively. 52 Media, Sex, and Aggression Viewing violent pornography can increase aggression, particularly by males against females, and it can lead men to hold negative attitudes toward women and to endorse rape myths. Sexual Violence - Sexual violence is a common and serious problem in the United States. 53 Family Violence Family violence is a serious problem – Broad social factors (poverty, unemployment, substance abuse), – Sexism – Personality traits – A family history of abuse – Relationship problems 54 Hostile and Instrumental Aggression Hostile aggression is generally provoked by pain or upset It is emotional and its primary purpose is to do harm. Anything that increases emotional arousal increases the likelihood of hostile aggression. In addition, hostile impulses are particularly likely to lead to deadly behaviors in the presence of facilitating stimuli (such as weapons). 55 Instrumental Aggression Instrumental aggression is not necessarily caused by anger or emotion. Its goal is to gain some desired rewards, such as money or valuable goods. Instrumental aggression is molded by environmental rewards and social learning. 56 Reduction of Aggression Not only are hostile and instrumental aggression triggered by different factors, they also may be reduced in different ways. Hostile aggression can often be reduced if we somehow distract the person in a passionate rage and give him time to cool off; Instrumental aggression is more likely to be reduced by changing the models, rewards, and punishments that influence the aggressive behavior. 57 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? 58 Prosocial Behavior Prosocial behavior : Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person. Altruism Helping behavior that is motivated primarily by a desire to benefit others, not oneself. 59 A basic question that people asked: Are people willing to help when there is nothing to gain? Or Do they help only when there is some benefit for them? 60 Theories Evolutionary Theory: Instincts and Genes Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping Cultural Explanation 61 Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts & Genes Evolutionary Psychology is the attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection. Darwin recognized that altruistic behavior posed a problem for his theory: if an organism acts altruistically, it may decrease its own reproductive fitness. The norm of reciprocity is the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future. 62 Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping Helping can be rewarding in three ways: – it can increase the probability that someone will help us in return; – it can relieve the personal distress of the bystander; – and it can gain us social approval and increased self-worth Social exchange theory argues that much of what we do stems from the desire to maximize our outcomes and minimize our costs. Like evolutionary psychology, it is a theory based on self-interest; unlike it, it does not assume that self-interest has no genetic basis 63 Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping Batson is the strongest proponent of the idea that people often help purely out of the goodness of their hearts Batson’s empathy-altruism hypothesis states that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help purely for altruistic reasons, that is, regardless of what we have to gain He argues that pure altruism is most likely to come into play when we experience empathy for the person in need; that is, we are able to experience events and emotions the way that that person experiences them. 64 Batson is the strongest proponent of the idea that people often help purely out of the goodness of their hearts Batson’s empathy-altruism hypothesis states that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help purely for altruistic reasons, that is, regardless of what we have to gain He argues that pure altruism is most likely to come into play when we experience empathy for the person in need; that is, we are able to experience events and emotions the way that that person experiences them. 65 Cultural Theory Norms of pro social behavior are prescriptive social rules that govern when help should be offered to others. The norms of reciprocity, equity and social responsibility help enforce and regulate prosocial behavior. Cultural varies in general levels of helpfulness and in their moral views of helping behavior 66 Determinant of pro-social behavior Personal determinant – Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality – Gender Differences in Prosocial behavior – The effects of mood on helping: Feel Good, Do Good Situational determinant – Rural Versus Urban Environments – The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect – The Nature of the Relationship: Communal Versus Exchange Relationships 67 Personal Determinants of Prosocial Behavior Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality Gender Differences in Prosocial behavior The effects of mood on helping: Feel Good, Do Good 68 Personal Determinants of Prosocial Behavior Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality Developmental psychologists find helping in . very young children – Helping can be encouraged by rewards, but rewards should not be emphasized too much. – Parents can also increase prosocial behavior in their children by doing it themselves Children learn from observation what is valued and desired. 69 – Personal Determinants of Pro social Behavior Gender Differences in Prosocial behavior • Eagly and Crowley found that men are more likely to help in chivalrous, heroic ways, and women are more likely to help in nurturant ways involving longterm commitment. 70 Personal Determinants of Prosocial Behavior The Effects of Mood on Helping: Feel Good, Do Good – Good mood and Good mood generosity lead to a more pro social behavior – Bad mood and seeking relief Negative-state relief hypothesis says that people help in order to alleviate their own sadness and distress 71 Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help? Rural Versus Urban Environments The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect The Nature of the Relationship: Communal Versus Exchange Relationships 72 Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior Rural Versus Urban Environments – One explanation is that people from rural settings are brought up to be more neighborly and more likely to trust strangers. – Milgram in her urban-overload hypothesis the idea that people living in cities are likely to keep to themselves in order to avoid being overloaded by all the stimulation they receive. 73 Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect – The bystander effect is the finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help – Latané and Darley developed a step by step description of how people decide whether to help in an emergency: Noticing an Event: Interpreting the Event as an Emergency Assuming responsibility Knowing How to Help The Deciding to Implement the Help 74 Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior The Nature of the Relationship: Communal Versus Exchange Relationships – Generally we are more helpful towards friends than strangers; the exception occurs when the other is beating us in a domain that is personally important and thus threatens our self-esteem 75 How Can Helping Be Increased? People do not always want to be helped -- if being helped means that they appear incompetent, they will often suffer in silence, even at the cost of failing at the task. Simply being aware of the barriers to helping can increase people’s chances of overcoming those barriers. The goal of helping is to make it supportive, highlighting concern for the recipient; watch out for administering aid that merely threatens the other’s self-esteem. 76 Attitudes and Attitude Change 77 What is attitude ? – An attitude is a mental & neutral state of readiness, organized through experiences, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situation with which it is related. (G.W. Allport) 78 Attitude are how we feel about a particular things, people, groups, events and issues in our world. An attitude exist in a person mind it is a mental state. Attitude is an evaluation judgement positive, negative or neutral about objects of thoughts. Some of our attitudes are intensely felt, but others may have really little meaning to us. 79 Attitude are based on “ABC” information – affective component the person’s emotions and affect towards the object – behavioral component how person tends to act towards the object – cognitive component consists of thoughts and beliefs the person has about the object – These are not always highly related to each other. 80 Components of attitude 3 components: – Belief/cognition – An evaluation (affective) – A Behavioral Predisposition “My Social Psychology class is really boring” 81 Belief/cognition Component An attitude includes – An object label – Rules for applying the label – Set of cognition knowledge structure associated with the label The person who doesn’t like his/her social psychology class perceive it as involving – Certain content – Taught by a particular person We often cannot prove whether a particular beliefs are true /false. 82 An evaluation (affective) Component Emotional element. “It’s boring” indicate that the course arouse a mild unpleasant emotion in the lecture. Strong negative emotion dislike, hate, loath. “I hate him” Positive emotion “ This food is fantastic”, “I like her”, “He is very nice”. 83 A Behavioral Predisposition Component An attitude involves a behavioral tendency towards the targeted object. “It’s boring” implies a tendency to avoid the class “I like my job” suggest an intention to go to work/work harder. Persons having a specific attitude are inclined to behave in certain ways towards an object. 84 Some social Psychologist believe that attitudes are constructed from beliefs and values 85 Attitudes are viewed as the conclusion of 2 statements of belief and values premises: – Belief Non-evaluative thoughts about characteristics of objects in our world. What we perceive as the facts of our world “Easy access to guns produces more injuries” – Values An evaluation of the goodness or badness of objects of thoughts. “Producing injuries and deaths is bad” Attitudes are the results of the logical combination of these cognitive and evaluation element: – Attitude 86 “Easy access to guns is bad" Belief – “ Easy access to guns enables one to protect one’s family” Value – Being able to protect one’s family is good Attitude – Easy access to guns is good 87 Attitude Formation – “ I like my job” – “ Chinese are good at maths” – Nuclear power plants are dangerous” – Guns don’t kill, people kill people” Where do these attitude comes from? How are they formed? 88 How is attitude formed? 89 Social Learning Process (Socialization) Attitudes are learned from: Direct contact with the object/person Indirect contect with the person/object From Parents (as a part of socialization process) Instrumental learning Friends interaction with peers Media thru observational learning. 90 Functions of Attitude Instrumental function Knowledge or schematic function Value-expressive Ego Defense 91 Instrumental function We develop – favorable attitude towards objects that aid/reward us. – Unfavorable attitude towards objects that punish us. Once the attitude is developed it provide a simple & efficient mean of evaluating object. 92 Knowledge or schematic function Attitude provide us with a meaningful environment and guide behavior Help the person to structure the world so that it makes sense. – “All blacks (negroes are bad & untrustworthy” – “All Chinese are good in math's” 93 Value-expressive Some attitude express the individual’s basic values & reinforce self-image. Help the person express important aspects of self-concept. – Conservative attitude towards abortion, sex before marriage. It symbolizes a person’s identification with a group/sub-culture. 94 Ego defense Some attitude protect the person from recognizing certain thoughts or feelings that threaten his self image, or Experiences that threaten a person self-esteem which could lead to a more negative evaluation of other person/object/ group Help the person protect himself/herself from acknowledging basic self-truth. – Jack (a boss in a big company) cannot fully accept or acknowledge that he’s being controlled by his wife. – He then direct his anger & hatred towards his employee. 95 ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOR Social Psychologist studied attitude in order to predict behavior. The way people act towards or against us have an impact on our lives. However, research has also indicated that we cannot always predict how a person will behave from knowledge of the individual’s attitude (Wicker, 1969) – Eg. A Classic study by La Piere on Americans attitude & behavior towards Chinese, in early 30’s There is no attitude-behavior consistency 96 WHY? Some behavior are dependent on particular situation context Sometimes attitude is not made salient then it will not affect behavior Attitude questions asked are not specific enough Mood and behavior consistency. 97 Situational Factors According to Schuman & Johnson (1976): – Some behavior are dependent on particular situation context thus, attitude cannot predict them. 98 Attitude not salient - unaware In everyday life, whether we will remember our attitudes spontaneously when we have to act (behavior), depend on the strengths of association between the target object and our evaluation (attitude). How to encourage the strength of object-evaluation association: – Frequently expressing the same attitude when asked – Everyday & direct experience with the attitude object Thus, there will be consistency between your attitude & action if you thought about a situation or condition repeatedly, or you have had meaningful direct experience with the condition. 99 Attitude questions not specific Often, attitude tell nothing about behavior because the attitude questions asked are not specific enough. – Does a person’s infactuation with Ferrari sports cars tell us whether he will buy one? The more specifically worded the attitude measures the more consistent it was with behavior. – “Do you like Ferrari, and if you do would you buy one?” 100 Mood and behavior consistency The more intense your mood when you have to act the less likely that your behavior will be consistent with your attitude. Mood can be positive or negative. Mood often caused or changed everyday event. Studies shown that if you are in an irritable mood you tend to behave aggresively. Intense moods may overwhelm the influence of attitude on behavior which would reduce attitudebehavior consistency. 101 Persuasion Persuasion is a type of social influence in which a source tries to change the mind or action of a recipient. Persuasion involves overt attempt to change another person’s attitude or behavior. Message of persuasion may be: – Simple, informative, logical & positive – Frightening, fearful – Humorous etc. 102 Source of persuasion Mass-Media Advertisement Individual person (person-to-person) Group influence 103 What is Persuasion? "A conscious attempt by one individual or group to change the attitudes, beliefs, or behavior of another individual or group of individuals through the transmission of some message“ (Bettinghaus, E.P., and Cody, M.J.,1994). 104 Brainwashing Brainwashing – Indoctrination usually involves the ultimate persuasion strategies to produce extreme changes in attitude and behavior Religious group members Concentration camp prisoners Differences between brainwashing & typical persuasion situation – Effect control the persuaders have the power to benefit or harm their victims through giving or restricting basic physical or psychological needs. – Information control The persuaders can censure or provide information at their whim. 105 ATTITUDE CHANGE 106 Attitude change Formation & change of attitude are interwoven. Attitude change involves: – Adopting – Modifying – Relinquish attitudes to fit the needs & interest at present 107 Attitude cannot be change by simple education Acceptance of new attitude depends – on who is presenting the knowledge – How it is presented – How the person is perceived – The credibility of the communicator – The conditions by which the knowledge was received 108 Attitude change when: Cognitive change occurs Affective change occurs Behavioral Change occurs (Traindis) 109 110 Source of change Other people Family Media Church Object itself 111 Steps to changing attitude: Attention Comprehension Yielding Retention Action According to Triandis, “ in analyzing the attitude-change process we must consider the effect of who says what, how to whom, with what effect” 112 What can we do to change attitudes? In order to produce change a suggestion for change must be reviewed and accepted. Reception and acceptance are more likely to occur where the suggestion meets existing personality need or desires. The suggestion is more likely to be accepted if: – It is in harmony with valued group norms an loyalties. – The source of the message is perceived as trustworthy or expert. – The message follows certain rules of 'rhetoric' regarding order, presentation, organization of content, nature of appeal, etc. 113 A suggestion carried by mass media plus face-to-face reinforcement is more likely to be accepted than a suggestion carried by either one of these alone, other things being equal. Change in attitude is more likely to occur if the suggestion is accompanied by change in other factors underlying belief and attitude. 114 One-sided vs. two-sided presentation A one-sided presentation is more effective if the audience agrees or has little knowledge about the subject. A two-sided presentation is more effective if audience already has a view and you are trying to change it, because if they know the facts and you omit them, they will discount your argument. 115 Issue presented is likely to have a disproportionate influence on opinions if The cues as to the incompatibility of different items of information are absent. The contradictory information is presented by the same communicator. The committing actions are taken only after one side of the issue has been presented. The issue is an unfamiliar one. The recipient has only a superficial interest in 116 the issue (low cognitive need)