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The Central Nervous System Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. (d) Adult brain structures (e) Adult neural canal regions Telencephalon Cerebrum: cerebral hemispheres (cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Lateral ventricles Diencephalon Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), retina Third ventricle Mesencephalon Brain stem: midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Metencephalon Brain stem: pons (c) Secondary brain vesicles Cerebellum Myelencephalon Brain stem: medulla oblongata Spinal cord Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Fourth ventricle Central canal Regions and Organization of the CNS • Adult brain regions 1. Cerebral hemispheres 2. Diencephalon 3. Brain stem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) 4. Cerebellum Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cerebral hemisphere Diencephalon (d) Birth Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cerebellum Brain stem • Midbrain • Pons • Medulla oblongata Figure 12.3d Ventricles of the Brain • Connected to one another and to the central canal of the spinal cord • Lined by ependymal cells • Hold and transport CSF Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral ventricle Septum pellucidum Anterior horn Inferior horn Lateral aperture Interventricular foramen Third ventricle Inferior horn Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Central canal (a) Anterior view (b) Left lateral Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior horn Median aperture Lateral aperture view Figure 12.5 Cerebral Hemispheres • Surface markings • Ridges (gyri), shallow grooves (sulci), and deep grooves (fissures) • Five lobes • Frontal • Parietal • Temporal • Occipital • Insula Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cerebral Hemispheres • Surface markings • Central sulcus • Separates the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe and the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe • Longitudinal fissure • Separates the two hemispheres • Transverse cerebral fissure • Separates the cerebrum and the cerebellum Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Precentral gyrus Frontal lobe Central sulcus Postcentral gyrus Parietal lobe Parieto-occipital sulcus (on medial surface of hemisphere) Lateral sulcus Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Transverse cerebral fissure Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Fissure (a deep sulcus) Gyrus Cortex (gray matter) Sulcus White matter (a) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.6a Cerebral Cortex • Thin (2–4 mm) superficial layer of gray matter • 40% of the mass of the brain • Site of conscious mind: awareness, sensory perception, voluntary motor initiation, communication, memory storage, understanding Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex • The three types of functional areas are: • Motor areas—control voluntary movement • Sensory areas—conscious awareness of sensation • Association areas—integrate diverse information • Conscious behavior involves the entire cortex Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Motor Areas • Primary (somatic) motor cortex • Premotor cortex • Broca’s area • Frontal eye field Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Motor areas Central sulcus Primary motor cortex Premotor cortex Frontal eye field Broca’s area (outlined by dashes) Prefrontal cortex Working memory for spatial tasks Executive area for task management Working memory for object-recall tasks Solving complex, multitask problems (a) Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere Sensory areas and related association areas Primary somatosensory cortex Somatic Somatosensory sensation association cortex Gustatory cortex (in insula) Taste Wernicke’s area (outlined by dashes) Primary visual cortex Visual association area Auditory association area Primary auditory cortex Vision Hearing Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Primary motor cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.8a Primary Motor Cortex • Large pyramidal cells of the precentral gyri • Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior Motor Motor map in precentral gyrus Anterior Toes Jaw Tongue Swallowing Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus) Figure 12.9 Premotor Cortex • Anterior to the precentral gyrus • Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills • Coordinates simultaneous or sequential actions • Involved in the planning of movements that depend on sensory feedback Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Broca’s Area • Anterior to the inferior region of the premotor area • Present in one hemisphere (usually the left) • A motor speech area that directs muscles of the tongue • Is active as one prepares to speak Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Frontal Eye Field • Anterior to the premotor cortex and superior to Broca’s area • Controls voluntary eye movements Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Sensory Areas • Primary somatosensory cortex • Somatosensory association cortex • Visual areas • Auditory areas Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. • Olfactory cortex • Gustatory cortex • Visceral sensory area • Vestibular cortex Motor areas Central sulcus Primary motor cortex Premotor cortex Frontal eye field Broca’s area (outlined by dashes) Prefrontal cortex Working memory for spatial tasks Executive area for task management Working memory for object-recall tasks Solving complex, multitask problems (a) Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere Sensory areas and related association areas Primary somatosensory cortex Somatic Somatosensory sensation association cortex Gustatory cortex (in insula) Taste Wernicke’s area (outlined by dashes) Primary visual cortex Visual association area Auditory association area Primary auditory cortex Vision Hearing Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Primary motor cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.8a Primary Somatosensory Cortex • In the postcentral gyri • Receives sensory information from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints • Capable of spatial discrimination: identification of body region being stimulated Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior Sensory Anterior Sensory map in postcentral gyrus Genitals Primary somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Intraabdominal Figure 12.9 Somatosensory Association Cortex • Posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex • Integrates sensory input from primary somatosensory cortex • Determines size, texture, and relationship of parts of objects being felt Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Visual Areas • Primary visual (striate) cortex • Extreme posterior tip of the occipital lobe • Receives visual information from the retinas Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Auditory Areas • Primary auditory cortex • Superior margin of the temporal lobes • Interprets information from inner ear as pitch, loudness, and location • Auditory association area • Stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sounds Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. OIfactory Cortex • Medial aspect of temporal lobes • Region of conscious awareness of odors Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Gustatory Cortex • In the insula • Involved in the perception of taste Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Visceral Sensory Area • Posterior to gustatory cortex • Conscious perception of visceral sensations, e.g., upset stomach or full bladder Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Vestibular Cortex • Posterior part of the insula and adjacent parietal cortex • Responsible for conscious awareness of balance (position of the head in space) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Multimodal Association Areas • Receive inputs from multiple sensory areas • Send outputs to multiple areas • Allow us to give meaning to information received, store it as memory, compare it to previous experience, and decide on action to take Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Multimodal Association Areas • Three parts • Anterior association area (prefrontal cortex) • Posterior association area • Limbic association area Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Anterior Association Area (Prefrontal Cortex) • Most complicated cortical region • Involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and personality • Contains working memory needed for judgment, reasoning, persistence, and conscience • Development depends on feedback from social environment Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior Association Area • Large region in temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes • Plays a role in recognizing patterns and faces and localizing us in space • Involved in understanding written and spoken language (Wernicke’s area) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Limbic Association Area • Part of the limbic system • Provides emotional impact that helps establish memories Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateralization of Cortical Function • Lateralization • Division of labor between hemispheres • Cerebral dominance • Designates the hemisphere dominant for language (left hemisphere in 90% of people) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateralization of Cortical Function • Left hemisphere • Controls language, math, and logic • Right hemisphere • Insight, visual-spatial skills, intuition, and artistic skills • Left and right hemispheres communicate via fiber tracts in the cerebral white matter Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Basal Nuclei (Ganglia) • Caudate nucleus • Lentiform nucleus (putamen + globus pallidus) • Functionally associated with the subthalamic nuclei (diencephalon) and the substantia nigra (midbrain) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Fibers of corona radiata Caudate nucleus Lentiform Corpus nucleus striatum • Putamen • Globus pallidus (deep to putamen) Projection fibers run deep to lentiform nucleus (a) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Thalamus Tail of caudate nucleus Figure 12.11a Anterior (b) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior Cerebral cortex Cerebral white matter Corpus callosum Anterior horn of lateral ventricle Caudate nucleus Putamen Lentiform Globus nucleus pallidus Thalamus Tail of caudate nucleus Third ventricle Inferior horn of lateral ventricle Figure 12.11b (1 of 2) Cerebral cortex Cerebral white matter Corpus callosum Anterior horn of lateral ventricle Caudate nucleus Lentiform nucleus Thalamus Third ventricle Inferior horn of lateral ventricle (b) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.11b (2 of 2) Functions of Basal Nuclei • Thought to be functions of basal nuclei • Influence muscular control • Help regulate attention and cognition • Regulate intensity of slow or stereotyped movements • Inhibit antagonistic and unnecessary movements Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Diencephalon • Three paired structures • Thalamus • Hypothalamus • Epithalamus Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cerebral hemisphere Septum pellucidum Interthalamic adhesion (intermediate mass of thalamus) Interventricular foramen Anterior commissure Hypothalamus Optic chiasma Pituitary gland Mammillary body Pons Medulla oblongata Corpus callosum Fornix Choroid plexus Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) Posterior commissure Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Corpora quadrigemina MidCerebral brain aqueduct Arbor vitae (of cerebellum) Fourth ventricle Choroid plexus Cerebellum Spinal cord Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.12 Thalamus • 80% of diencephalon • Contains several nuclei, named for their location • Nuclei project and receive fibers from the cerebral cortex Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Dorsal nuclei Medial Lateral Lateral dorsal posterior Pulvinar Anterior nuclear group Reticular nucleus Ventral Ventral Ventral posteroanterior lateral lateral Medial geniculate body Lateral geniculate body Ventral nuclei (a) The main thalamic nuclei. (The reticular nuclei that “cap” the thalamus laterally are depicted as curving translucent structures.) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.13a Thalamic Function • Gateway to the cerebral cortex • Sorts, edits, and relays information • Afferent impulses from all senses and all parts of the body • Impulses from the hypothalamus for regulation of emotion and visceral function • Impulses from the cerebellum and basal nuclei to help direct the motor cortices • Mediates sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Hypothalamus • Contains many nuclei • Example: mammillary bodies • Paired anterior nuclei • Olfactory relay stations • Infundibulum—stalk that connects to the pituitary gland Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Paraventricular nucleus Anterior commissure Preoptic nucleus Anterior hypothalamic nucleus Supraoptic nucleus Suprachiasmatic nucleus Fornix Arcuate nucleus Pituitary gland Optic chiasma Infundibulum (stalk of the pituitary gland) (b) The main hypothalamic nuclei. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Dorsomedial nucleus Posterior hypothalamic nucleus Lateral hypothalamic area Ventromedial nucleus Mammillary body Figure 12.13b Hypothalamic Function • Autonomic control center for many visceral functions (e.g., blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility) • Center for emotional response: Involved in perception of pleasure, fear, and rage and in biological rhythms and drives Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Hypothalamic Function • Regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, and thirst • Regulates sleep and the sleep cycle • Controls release of hormones by the anterior pituitary • Produces posterior pituitary hormones Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Epithalamus • Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon; forms roof of the third ventricle • Pineal gland—extends from the posterior border and secretes melatonin • Melatonin—helps regulate sleep-wake cycles Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cerebral hemisphere Septum pellucidum Interthalamic adhesion (intermediate mass of thalamus) Interventricular foramen Anterior commissure Hypothalamus Optic chiasma Pituitary gland Mammillary body Pons Medulla oblongata Corpus callosum Fornix Choroid plexus Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) Posterior commissure Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Corpora quadrigemina MidCerebral brain aqueduct Arbor vitae (of cerebellum) Fourth ventricle Choroid plexus Cerebellum Spinal cord Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.12 Brain Stem • Three regions • Midbrain • Pons • Medulla oblongata Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Brain Stem • Controls automatic behaviors necessary for survival • Associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Frontal lobe Olfactory bulb (synapse point of cranial nerve I) Optic chiasma Optic nerve (II) Optic tract Mammillary body Midbrain Pons Temporal lobe Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.14 View (a) Optic chiasma Optic nerve (II) Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles (midbrain) Diencephalon • Thalamus • Hypothalamus Mammillary body Thalamus Hypothalamus Diencephalon Midbrain Oculomotor nerve (III) Trochlear nerve (IV) Pons Brainstem Medulla oblongata Trigeminal nerve (V) Pons Facial nerve (VII) Middle cerebellar peduncle Abducens nerve (VI) Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Pyramid Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Hypoglossal nerve (XII) Vagus nerve (X) Ventral root of first cervical nerve Decussation of pyramids Accessory nerve (XI) Spinal cord (a) Ventral view Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.15a Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles (midbrain) Thalamus View (b) Infundibulum Pituitary gland Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Trochlear nerve (IV) Trigeminal nerve (V) Pons Superior cerebellar peduncle Middle cerebellar peduncle Facial nerve (VII) Abducens nerve (VI) Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Hypoglossal nerve (XII) Inferior cerebellar peduncle Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Olive Thalamus Vagus nerve (X) Hypothalamus Diencephalon Midbrain Accessory nerve (XI) Pons Brainstem Medulla oblongata (b) Left lateral view Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 12.15b Midbrain Nuclei • Nuclei that control cranial nerves III (oculomotor) and IV (trochlear) • Visual reflex centers • Auditory relay centers • Substantia nigra—functionally linked to basal nuclei • Red nucleus—relay nuclei for some descending motor pathways and part of reticular formation Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Tectum Periaqueductal gray matter Oculomotor nucleus (III) Medial lemniscus Red nucleus Substantia nigra Fibers of pyramidal tract (a) Midbrain Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Dorsal Superior colliculus Cerebral aqueduct Reticular formation Ventral Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncle Figure 12.16a Pons • Forms part of the anterior wall of the fourth ventricle • Connect higher brain centers and the spinal cord • Relay impulses between the motor cortex and the cerebellum • Origin of cranial nerves V (trigeminal), VI (abducens), and VII (facial) • Nuclei that help maintain normal rhythm of breathing Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Fourth ventricle Superior cerebellar peduncle Trigeminal main sensory nucleus Trigeminal motor nucleus Middle cerebellar peduncle Trigeminal nerve (V) Medial lemniscus (b) Pons Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Reticular formation Pontine nuclei Fibers of pyramidal tract Figure 12.16b Medulla Oblongata • Joins spinal cord at foramen magnum • Contains a choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle • Relay sensory information from muscles and joints to cerebellum • Cranial nerves VIII, X, and XII are associated with the medulla • Mediates responses that maintain equilibrium Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Medulla Oblongata • Autonomic reflex centers • Cardiovascular center • Cardiac center adjusts force and rate of heart contraction • Vasomotor center adjusts blood vessel diameter for blood pressure regulation • Respiratory centers • Generate respiratory rhythm • Control rate and depth of breathing Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Medulla Oblongata • Additional centers regulate • Vomiting • Hiccuping • Swallowing • Coughing • Sneezing Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Reticular formation Fourth ventricle Choroid Hypoglossal nucleus (XII) plexus Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus (X) Inferior cerebellar peduncle Lateral nuclear group Medial nuclear group Raphe nucleus Medial lemniscus (c) Medulla oblongata Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Solitary nucleus Vestibular nuclear complex (VIII) Cochlear nuclei (VIII) Nucleus ambiguus Inferior olivary nucleus Pyramid Figure 12.16c