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A&P I Exam 1 Review Slides Summer 2013 Lectures 1-6 Chapters 1, 2, and 3 1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy – study of structure - Gross anatomy – macroscopic (types?) - Cytology (microanatomy) – cells - Histology (microanatomy) – tissues Physiology – study of function - Specialized, e.g., neuro-, cellular-, patho- - Comparative physiology Structure is always related to function; if structure changes, function changes 2 General Function of Organ Systems A&P I A&P II 3 Serous Membranes Be able to label ALL parts of this diagram; (What system is each organ a part of?) ** See the gserianne.com Web site for downloadable blanks to label 4 Serous Membranes Be able to label ALL parts of this diagram (What system is each organ a part of?) 5 Homeostasis A CRITICAL (and very testable) concept in physiology Body’s maintenance of a stable internal environment **Absence of homeostasis = DISEASE Homeostatic Mechanisms – monitor aspects of the internal environment and corrects any changes •Receptors - provide information about environment •Control center - tells what a particular value should be •Effectors - causes responses to change internal environment Negative feedback – deviation from set point progressively lessens Positive feedback – deviation from set point gets progressively greater 6 Homeostasis • Remember that homeostasis does NOT mean constant! – Continual variations occur in body systems – Gives rise to ‘normal ranges’ (See Appendix B) • Examples of negative feedback – Temperature regulation, blood pressure, blood glucose levels • Examples of positive feedback – Blood clotting, milk production, uterine contraction 7 Levels of Organization 8 Important Definitions of Organizational Terms • Cell – The basic unit of biological structure and function (what is a ‘basic unit’ of something?) • Tissues – A group of cells working together to perform one or more specific functions • Organs – Two or more tissues working in combination to perform several functions • Organ System – Interaction of organs functioning closely together 9 Serous Membranes Visceral layer – covers an organ Parietal layer – lines a cavity or body wall Thoracic Membranes •Visceral pleura •Parietal pleura •Visceral pericardium •Parietal pericardium Abdominopelvic Membranes •Visceral peritoneum •Parietal peritoneum Serous fluid – thin, watery, slippery fluid typically separating serous membranes 10 Atomic Number Atomic Number • number of protons in the nucleus of one atom • each element has a unique atomic number • equals the number of electrons in the atom in an electrically neutral, i.e., uncharged, atom Written as a subscript to the left of the element's symbol. Example: 11Na In a neutral atom, # protons = # electrons. 11 Atomic Mass Number (Weight) • Atomic Mass Number – the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom – electrons contribute negligibly to the weight of the atom, so for our purposes we can consider the atomic weight = atomic mass number Written as a superscript to the left of an element’s symbol. Example: 23 Na 12 Determining Atomic Number & Atomic Mass Number What is the atomic number? What is the atomic mass number (weight) 12 C 6 What is the number of protons? What is the number of electrons? What is the number of neutrons? 14 C 6 What about this form of Carbon??? 13 Periodic Table of the Elements Groups The “magic numbers” From: Trefil, Hazen, The Sciences, 4th ed., Wiley Press, 2004 14 Ions Ion • an atom that has gained or lost one or more electron(s) • an electrically charged ‘atom’ • atoms form ions to become stable Cation (CA+ION) • a positively charged ion • formed when an atom loses one or more electron(s) (oxidation) Anion • a negatively charged ion • formed when an atom gains one or more electron(s) (reduction) To remember oxidation/reduction, think: “OIL RIG” 15 Isotopes Isotopes • atoms with the same atomic numbers but with different atomic weights • atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons • oxygen (atomic number 8) has the following isotopes (16O, 17O, 18O) • unstable isotopes (radioisotopes or radionuclides) are radioactive; they emit subatomic particles. • **Not all isotopes are radioactive 16 Most common elements in the human body (by weight) 96% 17 Types of Chemical Bonds • There are three major types of chemical bonds to know… – Ionic (electrovalent) bonds – attraction between oppositely charged ions – Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons – Hydrogen bonds – weak, electrostatic interaction between atoms 18 Chemical Bond Summary TYPE OF BOND DEFINITION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE IONIC when atoms lose or gain electrons becoming ions, and then oppositely charged ions are attracted to one another bond is broken by water salts, NaCl COVALENT when 1 or more pair(s) of electrons is/are shared by atoms (single, double, triple) strong bond the bonds holding a molecule of H20 together, CO2 HYDROGEN when a (slightly positive) hydrogen atom that is already covalently bonded to a molecule is attracted to a slightly negative atom. Very weak bond; in molecules whose purpose is to easily break and then come back together reactions between water molecules (i.e. ice to water to gas); DNA chains (typically with O, N) 19 Types of Chemical Reactions Synthesis Reaction (also called condensation or dehydration synthesis reactions when water is released) – chemical bonds are formed (requires energy) A + B AB Decomposition Reaction (also called hydrolysis when water is used for decomposition) – chemical bonds are broken (liberates energy) AB A + B Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and formed AB + CD AD + CB Reversible Reaction – the products can change back to the reactants A + B n AB 20 Summary of Reaction Types SYNTHESIS REACTIONS DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS GENERAL DESCRIPTION Synthesis involves the building of a large molecule (polymer) from smaller building blocks (monomer). Decomposition involves the breakdown of a polymer into individual monomers. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS building constructive anabolic breakdown digestive decomposition catabolic BOND FORMATION OR BREAKING? Bonds are formed. Bonds are broken. IS ENERGY REQUIRED OR RELEASED? NAME THAT TERM. Energy is required to form the bond. (Endergonic) Energy is released when the bond is broken. (Exergonic) HOW IS WATER INVOLVED? NAME THAT TERM. Water is released when he bond is formed. Dehydration synthesis Water is required to break the bond. Hydrolysis EXAMPLE Building a protein from individual amino acids; Building a triglyceride from glycerol and 3 fatty acids, etc Breaking a protein into individual amino acids; Breaking starch down into monosaccharides, etc. 21 Equilibrium At equilibrium, the ratio of products to reactants stays constant Note that equilibrium does NOT necessarily mean that the concentrations of reactants and products are equal! Figure from: Alberts et al., Essential Cell Biology, Garland Publishing, 1998 22 Acids, Bases, and Salts Electrolytes – soluble inorganic substances that release ions in water (aqueous) and will conduct an electrical current NaCl Na+ + Cl- Acids – substances that release hydrogen ions (protons) in water HCl H+ + Cl- Bases – substances that release OH- (or other negative) ions in water that can combine with, and remove, H+ from solution NaOH Na+ + OH- Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base (anions/cations EXCEPT H+ or OH-) HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl 23 pH (H+ concentration) *Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-] *Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-] pH scale - indicates the concentration of FREE hydrogen ions in solution (think: “power of Hydrogen”) *pH of human blood plasma = 7.35 – 7.45 (AVG = 7.4) - Acidosis 7.35 - Alkalosis 7.45 - pH 7.8 causes uncontrolled skeletal muscle contractions 24 Solutions • Solutions contain – Dissolved substances: solutes – The substance doing the dissolving: solvent, e.g. water • Concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a particular volume of solvent – Example: Grams per liter (g/L) – Example: Milligrams per liter (mg/L) 25 Moles and Molarity • A ‘mole’ is the atomic/molecular weight of an element expressed in grams – Example: 1 mole of 23Na = 23 grams (g) – Example: 1 mole of 1H = 1 g – Example: 1 mole of H2O = 18 g • Molarity (M) is the number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1 Liter (L) of solvent, i.e., moles/L – Example: 1 mole Na in 1 L H2O = 1M Na solution – Example: 2 moles Na in 2 L H2O = ?M Na solution – Example: 1 millmole Na in 1 L H2O = ?M Na solution 26 Organic Molecule Carbohydrates (sugars) Lipids (Fats) Proteins Nucleic Acids Composed of what atoms? C, H, O C, H, O C, H, O, N, S C, H, O, N, P Building Blocks (monomers) Monosaccharides, e.g. hexoses (6-carbon) Triglycerides: glycerol and 3 fatty acids Phospholipid: glycerol, 2 FA, phosphate amino acids nucleotides: pentose sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base Specific types & functions of monomers Mono-; glucose, fructose, galactose TG: energy Phospholipid: cell membrane component Steroid: cell membrane component and chemical messenger (i.e. cholesterol) 20 different amino acids; each differs from the others because of its unique R group N/A N/A proteins (>100 amino acids); Many functions: ENZYMES, antibodies, structure, transport, chemical messengers, storage DNA: deoxy-ribonucleic acid; genetic material; RNA: ribonucleic acid; aids DNA in protein synthesis. Saturated (only single bonds between C’s in fa chain) vs. Unsaturated (at least 1 double bond in fa chain) Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds DNA controls cellular activity by instructing our cells what proteins to make (i.e. Enzymes through protein synthesis). Glucose = body’s energy source Specific types and functions of polymers Other Information Disaccharides: sucrose, lactose, maltose; energy _____________ Polysaccharides Starch (plant); Glycogen (animal); energy storage. Dipeptide = two aa Tripeptide = three aa 27 Enzymes and Metabolic Reactions Biological catalysts, i.e., speed up reactions without being changed in the process. • control rates of metabolic reactions • lower activation energy needed to start reactions • globular proteins with specific shapes • not consumed in chemical reactions • substrate specific • shape of active site determines which substrate(s) the enzyme can act on Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson Many times the name of an enzyme ends with suffix ‘ase’ 28 Cofactors and Coenzymes Cofactors • make some enzymes active • ions or coenzymes Coenzymes • complex organic molecules that act as cofactors (so coenzymes ARE cofactors) • vitamins • NAD+ Vitamins are essential organic substances that human cells cannot synthesize, i.e., they must come from the diet - required in very small amounts - examples - B vitamins: Thiamine (B1), niacin The protein parts of enzymes that need a nonprotein part (coenzymes, cofactors) to work are called apoenzymes 29 ATP – An Activated Carrier Molecule • each ATP molecule has three parts: • an adenine molecule These two components together are called a ? • a ribose molecule • three phosphate molecules in a chain • ATP carries its energy in the form or P (phosphate) • ATP is a readily interchangeable form of energy for cellular reactions (“common currency”) – makes it valuable! Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson High-energy bonds Be able to explain or diagram this Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010 30 Cell Membranes Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001 31 31 Passage of Materials through the Cell Membrane Carrier/channel proteins required for all but fatsoluble molecules and small uncharged molecules oxygen, carbon dioxide and other lipid-soluble substances diffuse freely through the membrane 32 32 Cellular Transport Review TRANSPORT PROCESS IS ENERGY NEEDED? CONCENTRATION GRADIENT GENERAL DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE IN HUMANS SIGNIFICANCE SIMPLE DIFFUSION NO [HIGH] TO [LOW] spreading out of molecules to equilibrium O2 into cells; CO2 out of cells. Cellular Respiration FACILITATED DIFFUSION NO [HIGH] TO [LOW] Using a special cm carrier protein to move something through the cell membrane (cm) Process by which glucose enters cells OSMOSIS NO [HIGH] TO [LOW] water moving through the cm to dilute a solute maintenance of osmotic pressure. Same FILTRATION NO [HIGH] TO [LOW] using pressure to push something through a cm (sprinkler hose) manner in which the kidney filters things from blood removal of metabolic wastes ACTIVE TRANSPORT YES [LOW] TO [HIGH] opposite of diffusion at the expense of energy K+-Na+-ATPase pump maintenance of the resting membrane potential 33 Cellular Transport Review TRANSPORT PROCESS IS ENERGY NEEDED? CONCENTRATION GRADIENT GENERAL DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE IN HUMANS ACTIVE TRANSPORT YES [LOW] TO [HIGH] opposite of diffusion at the expense of energy K+-Na+-ATPase pump maintenance of the resting membrane potential ENDOCYTOSIS YES [LOW] TO [HIGH] bringing a substance into the cell that is too large to enter by any of the above ways; Phagocytosi: cell eating; Pinocytosis: cell drinking. Phagocytosed (foreign) particles fuse with lysosomes to be destroyed help fight infection EXOCYTOSIS YES [LOW] TO [HIGH] expelling a substance from the cell into ECF Exporting proteins; dumping waste Same SIGNIFICANCE 34 Osmotic Pressure/Tonicity Osmotic Pressure (Osmolarity) – ability of solute to generate enough pressure to move a volume of water by osmosis *Osmotic pressure increases as the number of nonpermeable solutes particles increases 0.9% NaCl • isotonic – same 5.0% Glucose osmotic pressure as a second solution • hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure • hypOtonic – lower osmotic pressure Crenation The O in o hyp tonic 35 Cellular Organelles Table 1 of 2 CELL COMPONENT DESCRIPTION/ STRUCTURE FUNCTION(S) CELL MEMBRANE Bilayer of phospholipids with proteins dispersed throughout cell boundary; selectively permeable (i.e. controls what enters and leaves the cell; membrane transport) CYTOPLASM jelly-like fluid (70% water) suspends organelles in cell NUCLEUS Central control center of cell; bound by lipid bilayer membrane; contains chromatin (loosely colied DNA and proteins) controls all cellular activity by directing protein synthesis (i.e. instructing the cell what proteins/enzymes to make. NUCLEOLUS dense spherical body(ies) within nucleus; RNA & protein Ribosome synthesis RIBOSOMES RNA & protein; dispersed throughout cytoplasm or studded on ER protein synthesis ROUGH ER Membranous network studded with ribosomes protein synthesis SMOOTH ER Membranous network lacking ribosomes lipid & cholesterol synthesis GOLGI “Stack of Pancakes”; cisternae modification, transport, and packaging of proteins 36 36 Cellular Organelles Table 2 of 2 CELL COMPONENT DESCRIPTION/ STRUCTURE FUNCTION(S) LYSOSOMES Membranous sac of digestive enzymes destruction of worn cell parts (“autolysis) and foreign particles PEROXISOMES Membranous sacs filled with oxidase enzymes (catalase) detoxification of harmful substances (i.e. ethanol, drugs, etc.) MITOCHONDRIA Kidney shaped organelles whose inner membrane is folded into “cristae”. Site of Cellular Respiration; “Powerhouse of Cell” FLAGELLA long, tail-like extension; human sperm locomotion CILIA short, eyelash extensions; human trachea & fallopian tube to allow for passage of substances through passageways MICROVILLI microscopic ruffling of cell membrane increase surface area CENTRIOLES paired cylinders of microtubules at right angles near nucleus aid in chromosome movement during mitosis 37 37 A Closer Look at Mitochondria Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001 (Impermeable to charged or polar molecules) Strategically placed in cell where ATP demand is high Concentration of enzymes in the matrix is so high that there is virtually no hydrating water. Enzyme-linked reactions and pathways are so crowded that normal rules of diffusion do not apply! 38 38 Overview of Cellular Respiration Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001 Anaerobic ATP e- *Most ATP from here Cellular respiration (aerobic) e- ETS + e- e- ATP • Structural – Functional Relationship - Inner membrane: • Contains Matrix where TCA cycle takes place • Has enzymes and molecules that allow Electron Transport System to be carried out 339 Overview of Glucose Breakdown NAD+ NAD+ NAD+ FAD Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010 40 40 Summary Table of Cell Respiration Where it takes place Products Produced Purpose What goes on GLYCOLYSIS TCA ETC Cytoplasm Mitochondria Mitochondria ATP NADH Pyruvate Breakdown of glucose (6 carbons) to 2 molecules of pyruvate (3 carbons) 1. Glucose is converted to pyruvate, which is converted to acetyl CoA when there is sufficient O2 present. 2. Acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle. 3. If O2 is not present, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid to replenish the supply of NAD+ so glycolysis can continue to make ATP ATP NADH,FADH2 CO2 Generation of energy intermediates (NADH, FADH2, ATP) and CO2 ATP NAD+,FAD H2O Generation of ATP and reduction of O2 to H2O (Recall that reduction is the addition of electrons) 1. The energy in acetyl CoA 1. Chemiosmosis (oxidative is trapped in activated phosphorylation) uses the carriers of electrons (NADH, electrons donated by NADH and FADH2) and activated FADH2 to eject H+ from the carriers of phosphate groups matrix of the mitochondria to the (ATP). intermembrane space. 2. The carries of electrons that trap the energy from 2. These H+ then flow down acetyl CoA bring their high their concentration gradient energy electrons to the through a protein (ATP synthase) electron transport chain. that makes ATP from ADP and phosphate. 3. During this process, the H+ that come through the channel in ATP synthase are combined with O2 to make H2O. 441 Anaerobic Glycolysis & Lactic Acid During glycolysis, if O2 is not present in sufficient quantity, lactic acid is generated to keep glycolysis going so it continues to generate ATP (even without mitochondria) Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010 NOTE what happens with and without O2 being available… 442 Cell Nucleus • control center of cell • nuclear envelope (membrane) • porous double membrane • separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm (*eukaryotes only) • nucleolus • dense collection of RNA and proteins • site of ribosome production • chromatin • fibers of DNA and proteins • stores information for synthesis of proteins Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson 43 43 The Cell Cycle • series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until the time it divides • stages • interphase • mitosis • cytoplasmic division • differentiation Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson Differentiated cells may spend all their time in ‘G0’ (neurons, skeletal muscle, red blood cells). Stem cells may never enter G0 44 Why the Cell Cycle Must Have Controls 1. DNA/Cell replication must not proceed unless a ‘signal to proceed’ is received 2. DNA must be completely and correctly replicate before mitosis takes place otherwise it should not occur. 3. Chromosomes must be correctly positioned during mitosis so they are separated correctly Major points summarized…same as lecture 6 slide 45 What are the Controls of the Cell Cycle? • cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types • skin and bone marrow cells divide often • liver cells divide a specific number of times then cease • chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis provide a mitotic clock (cell senescence) • cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to volume relationship • growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division • hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus • epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin • contact inhibition • Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases provide central control • tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control 46 Mitosis and Meiosis Figures from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001 Mitosis – production of two identical diploid daughter cells Meiosis – production of four genetically varied, haploid gametes 47 47 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis • INNKEEPER (INTERPHASE) • POUR (PROPHASE) • ME (METAPHASE) • ANOTHER (ANAPHASE) • TEQUILA (TELOPHASE/CYTOKINESIS) 48 Interphase Cell Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010 49 Prophase What structure joins the sister chromatids together? Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010 50 Metaphase Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010 51 Anaphase Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010 52 Telophase (and Cytokinesis) 53 Cell Death • Two mechanisms of cell death – Necrosis – Programmed cell death (PCD or apoptosis) • Necrosis – Tissue degeneration following cellular injury or destruction – Cellular contents released into the environment causing an inflammatory response • Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis) – Orderly, contained cell disintegration – Cellular contents are contained and cell is immediately phagocytosed 54 54 Stem and Progenitor Cells Stem cell • can divide to form two new stem cells • can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell • totipotent – can give rise to any cell type (Embryonic stem cells) • pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell types Progenitor cell • committed cell further along differentiation pathway • can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells • pluripotent • *not self-renewing, like stem cells Same as lecture 6 slide 55 55