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A&P I Exam 1 Review Slides
Summer 2013
Lectures 1-6
Chapters 1, 2, and 3
1
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy – study of structure
- Gross anatomy – macroscopic (types?)
- Cytology (microanatomy) – cells
- Histology (microanatomy) – tissues
Physiology – study of function
- Specialized, e.g., neuro-, cellular-, patho-
- Comparative physiology
Structure is always related to function;
if structure changes, function changes
2
General Function of Organ Systems
A&P I
A&P II
3
Serous Membranes
Be able to label ALL parts of this diagram; (What system is each organ a part of?)
** See the gserianne.com Web site for downloadable blanks to label
4
Serous Membranes
Be able to label ALL parts of this diagram
(What system is each organ a part of?)
5
Homeostasis
A CRITICAL (and very testable) concept in physiology
Body’s maintenance of a stable internal environment
**Absence of homeostasis = DISEASE
Homeostatic Mechanisms – monitor aspects of the
internal environment and corrects any changes
•Receptors - provide information about environment
•Control center - tells what a particular value should be
•Effectors - causes responses to change internal
environment
Negative feedback – deviation from set point progressively lessens
Positive feedback – deviation from set point gets progressively greater
6
Homeostasis
• Remember that homeostasis does NOT mean
constant!
– Continual variations occur in body systems
– Gives rise to ‘normal ranges’ (See Appendix B)
• Examples of negative feedback
– Temperature regulation, blood pressure, blood
glucose levels
• Examples of positive feedback
– Blood clotting, milk production, uterine contraction
7
Levels of Organization
8
Important Definitions of Organizational Terms
• Cell – The basic unit of biological structure and
function (what is a ‘basic unit’ of something?)
• Tissues – A group of cells working together to
perform one or more specific functions
• Organs – Two or more tissues working in
combination to perform several functions
• Organ System – Interaction of organs
functioning closely together
9
Serous Membranes
Visceral layer – covers an organ
Parietal layer – lines a cavity or body wall
Thoracic Membranes
•Visceral pleura
•Parietal pleura
•Visceral pericardium
•Parietal pericardium
Abdominopelvic Membranes
•Visceral peritoneum
•Parietal peritoneum
Serous fluid – thin, watery, slippery fluid typically
separating serous membranes
10
Atomic Number
Atomic Number
• number of protons in the nucleus of one atom
• each element has a unique atomic number
• equals the number of electrons in the atom in an
electrically neutral, i.e., uncharged, atom
Written as a subscript to the left of the element's symbol.
Example: 11Na
In a neutral atom, # protons = # electrons.
11
Atomic Mass Number (Weight)
• Atomic Mass Number
– the number of protons plus the number of
neutrons in one atom
– electrons contribute negligibly to the weight
of the atom, so for our purposes we can
consider the atomic weight = atomic mass
number
Written as a superscript to the left of an
element’s symbol.
Example:
23
Na
12
Determining Atomic Number & Atomic
Mass Number
What is the atomic number?
What is the atomic mass number (weight)
12 C
6
What is the number of protons?
What is the number of electrons?
What is the number of neutrons?
14 C
6
What about this form of Carbon???
13
Periodic Table of the Elements
Groups
The
“magic
numbers”
From: Trefil, Hazen, The Sciences, 4th ed., Wiley Press, 2004
14
Ions
Ion
• an atom that has gained or lost one or more electron(s)
• an electrically charged ‘atom’
• atoms form ions to become stable
Cation (CA+ION)
• a positively charged ion
• formed when an atom loses one
or more electron(s) (oxidation)
Anion
• a negatively charged ion
• formed when an atom gains one or
more electron(s) (reduction)
To remember oxidation/reduction, think:
“OIL RIG”
15
Isotopes
Isotopes
• atoms with the same atomic numbers but
with different atomic weights
• atoms with the same number of protons and
electrons but a different number of neutrons
• oxygen (atomic number 8) has the
following isotopes (16O, 17O, 18O)
• unstable isotopes (radioisotopes or
radionuclides) are radioactive; they emit
subatomic particles.
• **Not all isotopes are radioactive
16
Most common elements in the human body (by weight)
96%
17
Types of Chemical Bonds
• There are three major types of chemical bonds
to know…
– Ionic (electrovalent) bonds – attraction between
oppositely charged ions
– Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons
– Hydrogen bonds – weak, electrostatic interaction
between atoms
18
Chemical Bond Summary
TYPE OF BOND
DEFINITION
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
IONIC
when atoms lose or gain
electrons becoming
ions, and then
oppositely charged ions
are attracted to one
another
bond is broken by water
salts, NaCl
COVALENT
when 1 or more pair(s) of
electrons is/are shared
by atoms
(single, double, triple)
strong bond
the bonds holding a
molecule of H20
together, CO2
HYDROGEN
when a (slightly positive)
hydrogen atom that is
already covalently
bonded to a molecule is
attracted to a slightly
negative atom.
Very weak bond; in
molecules whose
purpose is to easily
break and then come
back together
reactions between water
molecules (i.e. ice to
water to gas);
DNA chains
(typically with O, N)
19
Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis Reaction (also called condensation or dehydration
synthesis reactions when water is released)
– chemical bonds are formed (requires energy)
A + B  AB
Decomposition Reaction (also called hydrolysis when water
is used for decomposition)
– chemical bonds are broken (liberates energy)
AB  A + B
Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and formed
AB + CD  AD + CB
Reversible Reaction – the products can change back to the
reactants
A + B n AB
20
Summary of Reaction Types
SYNTHESIS REACTIONS
DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Synthesis involves the building of a
large molecule (polymer) from
smaller building blocks
(monomer).
Decomposition involves the breakdown
of a polymer into individual
monomers.
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS
building
constructive
anabolic
breakdown
digestive
decomposition
catabolic
BOND FORMATION OR
BREAKING?
Bonds are formed.
Bonds are broken.
IS ENERGY REQUIRED
OR RELEASED?
NAME THAT TERM.
Energy is required to form the bond.
(Endergonic)
Energy is released when the bond is
broken.
(Exergonic)
HOW IS WATER
INVOLVED?
NAME THAT TERM.
Water is released when he bond is
formed.
Dehydration synthesis
Water is required to break the bond.
Hydrolysis
EXAMPLE
Building a protein from individual
amino acids;
Building a triglyceride from glycerol
and 3 fatty acids, etc
Breaking a protein into individual
amino acids;
Breaking starch down into
monosaccharides, etc.
21
Equilibrium
At equilibrium, the ratio of products to reactants stays constant
Note that equilibrium does NOT necessarily mean that the
concentrations of reactants and products are equal!
Figure from: Alberts et al., Essential Cell Biology, Garland Publishing, 1998
22
Acids, Bases, and Salts
Electrolytes – soluble inorganic substances that release ions in
water (aqueous) and will conduct an electrical current
NaCl  Na+ + Cl-
Acids – substances that release hydrogen ions (protons) in water
HCl  H+ + Cl-
Bases – substances that release OH- (or other negative) ions in
water that can combine with, and remove, H+ from solution
NaOH  Na+ + OH-
Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid
and a base (anions/cations EXCEPT H+ or OH-)
HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl
23
pH (H+ concentration)
*Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-]
*Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-]
pH scale - indicates the concentration of FREE hydrogen ions in
solution (think: “power of Hydrogen”)
*pH of human blood plasma = 7.35 – 7.45 (AVG = 7.4)
- Acidosis  7.35
- Alkalosis  7.45
- pH  7.8 causes uncontrolled skeletal muscle contractions
24
Solutions
• Solutions contain
– Dissolved substances: solutes
– The substance doing the
dissolving: solvent, e.g. water
• Concentration of a solution is
the amount of solute in a
particular volume of solvent
– Example: Grams per liter (g/L)
– Example: Milligrams per liter
(mg/L)
25
Moles and Molarity
• A ‘mole’ is the atomic/molecular weight of an
element expressed in grams
– Example: 1 mole of 23Na = 23 grams (g)
– Example: 1 mole of 1H = 1 g
– Example: 1 mole of H2O = 18 g
• Molarity (M) is the number of moles of a solute
dissolved in 1 Liter (L) of solvent, i.e., moles/L
– Example: 1 mole Na in 1 L H2O = 1M Na solution
– Example: 2 moles Na in 2 L H2O = ?M Na solution
– Example: 1 millmole Na in 1 L H2O = ?M Na solution
26
Organic Molecule
Carbohydrates (sugars)
Lipids (Fats)
Proteins
Nucleic
Acids
Composed of what
atoms?
C, H, O
C, H, O
C, H, O, N, S
C, H, O, N, P
Building Blocks
(monomers)
Monosaccharides, e.g.
hexoses (6-carbon)
Triglycerides: glycerol
and 3 fatty acids
Phospholipid: glycerol,
2 FA, phosphate
amino acids
nucleotides: pentose
sugar, phosphate,
nitrogen base
Specific types &
functions of
monomers
Mono-; glucose,
fructose, galactose
TG: energy
Phospholipid: cell
membrane
component
Steroid: cell membrane
component and
chemical
messenger (i.e.
cholesterol)
20 different amino
acids; each differs
from the others
because of its
unique R group
N/A
N/A
proteins (>100 amino
acids);
Many functions:
ENZYMES,
antibodies, structure,
transport, chemical
messengers,
storage
DNA: deoxy-ribonucleic
acid; genetic
material; RNA:
ribonucleic acid; aids
DNA in protein
synthesis.
Saturated (only single
bonds between C’s
in fa chain) vs.
Unsaturated (at
least 1 double
bond in fa chain)
Amino acids are joined
together by peptide
bonds
DNA controls cellular
activity by
instructing our
cells what proteins
to make (i.e.
Enzymes through
protein synthesis).
Glucose = body’s
energy source
Specific types and
functions of
polymers
Other
Information
Disaccharides:
sucrose, lactose,
maltose; energy
_____________
Polysaccharides
Starch (plant);
Glycogen (animal);
energy storage.
Dipeptide = two aa
Tripeptide = three aa
27
Enzymes and Metabolic Reactions
Biological catalysts, i.e., speed up reactions without being changed in the process.
• control rates of metabolic reactions
• lower activation energy needed to start reactions
• globular proteins with specific shapes
• not consumed in
chemical reactions
• substrate specific
• shape of active site
determines which
substrate(s) the
enzyme can act on
Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
Many times the name of an enzyme ends with suffix ‘ase’
28
Cofactors and Coenzymes
Cofactors
• make some enzymes
active
• ions or coenzymes
Coenzymes
• complex organic molecules
that act as cofactors (so
coenzymes ARE cofactors)
• vitamins
• NAD+
Vitamins are essential organic substances that human
cells cannot synthesize, i.e., they must come from the diet
- required in very small amounts
- examples - B vitamins: Thiamine (B1), niacin
The protein parts of enzymes that need a nonprotein part
(coenzymes, cofactors) to work are called apoenzymes
29
ATP – An Activated Carrier Molecule
• each ATP molecule has three parts:
• an adenine molecule
These two components
together are called a ?
• a ribose molecule
• three phosphate molecules in a chain
• ATP carries its energy in the form or P
(phosphate)
• ATP is a readily interchangeable form of
energy for cellular reactions (“common
currency”) – makes it valuable!
Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
High-energy bonds
Be able to
explain or
diagram this
Figure from: Hole’s Human
A&P, 12th edition, 2010
30
Cell Membranes
Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
31
31
Passage of Materials through the Cell Membrane
Carrier/channel
proteins required
for all but fatsoluble molecules
and small
uncharged
molecules
oxygen, carbon
dioxide and other
lipid-soluble
substances diffuse
freely through the
membrane
32
32
Cellular Transport Review
TRANSPORT
PROCESS
IS
ENERGY
NEEDED?
CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT
GENERAL
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
IN
HUMANS
SIGNIFICANCE
SIMPLE
DIFFUSION
NO
[HIGH]
TO
[LOW]
spreading out of
molecules to
equilibrium
O2 into cells; CO2
out of cells.
Cellular
Respiration
FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
NO
[HIGH]
TO
[LOW]
Using a special cm
carrier protein to
move something
through the cell
membrane (cm)
Process by which
glucose enters
cells
OSMOSIS
NO
[HIGH]
TO
[LOW]
water moving
through the cm to
dilute a solute
maintenance
of osmotic
pressure.
Same
FILTRATION
NO
[HIGH]
TO
[LOW]
using pressure to
push something
through a cm
(sprinkler hose)
manner in which
the kidney filters
things from blood
removal of
metabolic wastes
ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
YES
[LOW]
TO
[HIGH]
opposite of
diffusion at
the expense
of energy
K+-Na+-ATPase
pump
maintenance of the
resting
membrane
potential
33
Cellular Transport Review
TRANSPORT
PROCESS
IS
ENERGY
NEEDED?
CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT
GENERAL
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
IN
HUMANS
ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
YES
[LOW]
TO
[HIGH]
opposite of
diffusion at
the expense
of energy
K+-Na+-ATPase
pump
maintenance of the
resting
membrane
potential
ENDOCYTOSIS
YES
[LOW]
TO
[HIGH]
bringing a
substance
into the cell
that is too
large to
enter by
any of the
above
ways;
Phagocytosi: cell
eating;
Pinocytosis: cell
drinking.
Phagocytosed
(foreign)
particles
fuse with
lysosomes
to be
destroyed
help fight infection
EXOCYTOSIS
YES
[LOW]
TO
[HIGH]
expelling a
substance
from the
cell into
ECF
Exporting
proteins;
dumping
waste
Same
SIGNIFICANCE
34
Osmotic Pressure/Tonicity
Osmotic Pressure (Osmolarity) – ability of solute to generate
enough pressure to move a volume of water by osmosis
*Osmotic pressure increases as the number of nonpermeable
solutes particles increases
0.9% NaCl
• isotonic – same
5.0% Glucose
osmotic pressure as a
second solution
• hypertonic – higher
osmotic pressure
• hypOtonic – lower
osmotic pressure
Crenation
The O in
o
hyp tonic
35
Cellular Organelles
Table 1 of 2
CELL COMPONENT
DESCRIPTION/
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION(S)
CELL MEMBRANE
Bilayer of phospholipids with proteins
dispersed throughout
cell boundary; selectively permeable
(i.e. controls what enters and
leaves the cell; membrane
transport)
CYTOPLASM
jelly-like fluid (70% water)
suspends organelles in cell
NUCLEUS
Central control center of cell; bound
by lipid bilayer membrane;
contains chromatin (loosely
colied DNA and proteins)
controls all cellular activity by
directing protein synthesis (i.e.
instructing the cell what
proteins/enzymes to make.
NUCLEOLUS
dense spherical body(ies) within
nucleus; RNA & protein
Ribosome synthesis
RIBOSOMES
RNA & protein; dispersed throughout
cytoplasm or studded on ER
protein synthesis
ROUGH ER
Membranous network studded with
ribosomes
protein synthesis
SMOOTH ER
Membranous network lacking
ribosomes
lipid & cholesterol synthesis
GOLGI
“Stack of Pancakes”; cisternae
modification, transport, and packaging
of proteins
36
36
Cellular Organelles
Table 2 of 2
CELL COMPONENT
DESCRIPTION/
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION(S)
LYSOSOMES
Membranous sac of digestive enzymes
destruction of worn cell parts
(“autolysis) and foreign particles
PEROXISOMES
Membranous sacs filled with oxidase
enzymes (catalase)
detoxification of harmful substances
(i.e. ethanol, drugs, etc.)
MITOCHONDRIA
Kidney shaped organelles whose inner
membrane is folded into “cristae”.
Site of Cellular Respiration;
“Powerhouse of Cell”
FLAGELLA
long, tail-like extension; human sperm
locomotion
CILIA
short, eyelash extensions;
human trachea & fallopian tube
to allow for passage of substances
through passageways
MICROVILLI
microscopic ruffling of cell membrane
increase surface area
CENTRIOLES
paired cylinders of microtubules at
right angles near nucleus
aid in chromosome movement during
mitosis
37
37
A Closer Look at Mitochondria
Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
(Impermeable to charged or polar molecules)
Strategically
placed in cell
where ATP
demand is high
Concentration of enzymes in the matrix is so high that there is
virtually no hydrating water. Enzyme-linked reactions and
pathways are so crowded that normal rules of diffusion do not apply!
38
38
Overview of Cellular Respiration
Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
Anaerobic
ATP
e-
*Most ATP from here
Cellular
respiration
(aerobic)
e-
ETS
+ e-
e-
ATP
• Structural – Functional Relationship - Inner membrane:
• Contains Matrix where TCA cycle takes place
• Has enzymes and molecules that allow Electron Transport System to be carried out
339
Overview of Glucose Breakdown
NAD+
NAD+
NAD+
FAD
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
40
40
Summary Table of Cell Respiration
Where it takes
place
Products Produced
Purpose
What goes on
GLYCOLYSIS
TCA
ETC
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Mitochondria
ATP
NADH
Pyruvate
Breakdown of glucose
(6 carbons) to 2
molecules of pyruvate
(3 carbons)
1. Glucose is
converted to pyruvate,
which is converted to
acetyl CoA when there
is sufficient O2
present.
2. Acetyl CoA enters
the TCA cycle.
3. If O2 is not present,
pyruvate is converted
to lactic acid to
replenish the supply of
NAD+ so glycolysis
can continue to make
ATP
ATP
NADH,FADH2
CO2
Generation of energy
intermediates (NADH,
FADH2, ATP) and CO2
ATP
NAD+,FAD
H2O
Generation of ATP and reduction
of O2 to H2O (Recall that
reduction is the addition of
electrons)
1. The energy in acetyl CoA 1. Chemiosmosis (oxidative
is trapped in activated
phosphorylation) uses the
carriers of electrons (NADH, electrons donated by NADH and
FADH2) and activated
FADH2 to eject H+ from the
carriers of phosphate groups matrix of the mitochondria to the
(ATP).
intermembrane space.
2. The carries of electrons
that trap the energy from
2. These H+ then flow down
acetyl CoA bring their high
their concentration gradient
energy electrons to the
through a protein (ATP synthase)
electron transport chain.
that makes ATP from ADP and
phosphate.
3. During this process, the H+
that come through the channel in
ATP synthase are combined with
O2 to make H2O.
441
Anaerobic Glycolysis & Lactic Acid
During glycolysis, if O2 is not
present in sufficient quantity,
lactic acid is generated to keep
glycolysis going so it continues to
generate ATP (even without
mitochondria)
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
NOTE what happens with and
without O2 being available…
442
Cell Nucleus
• control center of cell
• nuclear envelope
(membrane)
• porous double membrane
• separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm (*eukaryotes only)
• nucleolus
• dense collection of RNA and
proteins
• site of ribosome production
• chromatin
• fibers of DNA and proteins
• stores information for synthesis
of proteins
Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
43
43
The Cell Cycle
• series of changes a cell
undergoes from the time it
forms until the time it divides
• stages
• interphase
• mitosis
• cytoplasmic division
• differentiation
Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
Differentiated cells may spend all their time in ‘G0’ (neurons, skeletal muscle, red
blood cells). Stem cells may never enter G0
44
Why the Cell Cycle Must Have Controls
1. DNA/Cell replication must not proceed unless a ‘signal to
proceed’ is received
2. DNA must be completely and correctly replicate before
mitosis takes place otherwise it should not occur.
3. Chromosomes must be correctly positioned during mitosis
so they are separated correctly
Major points summarized…same as lecture 6 slide
45
What are the Controls of the Cell Cycle?
• cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types
• skin and bone marrow cells divide often
• liver cells divide a specific number of times then cease
• chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis
provide a mitotic clock (cell senescence)
• cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to
volume relationship
• growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division
• hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus
• epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin
• contact inhibition
• Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases provide central control
• tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control
46
Mitosis and Meiosis
Figures from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
Mitosis – production of two identical diploid daughter cells
Meiosis – production of four genetically varied, haploid gametes
47
47
The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
• INNKEEPER (INTERPHASE)
• POUR (PROPHASE)
• ME (METAPHASE)
• ANOTHER (ANAPHASE)
• TEQUILA (TELOPHASE/CYTOKINESIS)
48
Interphase Cell
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
49
Prophase
What structure joins the
sister chromatids
together?
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
50
Metaphase
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
51
Anaphase
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
52
Telophase (and Cytokinesis)
53
Cell Death
• Two mechanisms of cell death
– Necrosis
– Programmed cell death (PCD or apoptosis)
• Necrosis
– Tissue degeneration following cellular injury or
destruction
– Cellular contents released into the environment
causing an inflammatory response
• Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis)
– Orderly, contained cell disintegration
– Cellular contents are contained and cell is
immediately phagocytosed
54
54
Stem and Progenitor Cells
Stem cell
• can divide to form two new stem cells
• can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell
• totipotent – can give rise to any cell type (Embryonic stem
cells)
• pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell
types
Progenitor cell
• committed cell further along differentiation pathway
• can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells
• pluripotent
• *not self-renewing, like stem cells
Same as lecture 6 slide
55
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