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Transcript
WHAT IS LEARNING? HOW DO WE LEARN? CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING SOCIAL LEARNING COGNITIVE LEARNING WHAT IS LEARNING? LEARNING happens when any experience brings about a relatively permanent change in behavior New neural connections Conditioned = learned Behaviorism central role in behavioral, thought, emotional patterns Memory & learning are 2 diff’t things! 4 MAIN WAYS IN WHICH WE LEARN LEARNING STYLES Favor a way of interacting w/, taking in, & processing stimuli More likely to learn when take in & work w/ info in EVERY way! Audio - hearing Visual – seeing Tactile/kinesthetic – doing (mvmt) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING = LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION Classical Conditioning old response becomes attached to a new stimulus (TIMING IS KEY!!!) Association mental connection btw 2 ‘things’ thought of 1 automatically brings up other Stimulus anything that provokes a response Response the rxn to a stimulus PRINCIPLES OF CC • NEUTRAL STIMULUS – doesn’t cause a rxn • UCS = stimulus that elicits a natural/ unlearned response • UCR = unlearned/natural rxn to a stimulus • CS = originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a learned response • CR = the learned rxn that the CS elicits EXTINCTION – disappearance of the CR b/c removal of the reinforcement CR ‘dies out’ SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY – CR reappears when the CS is presented again after extinction HABITUATED - the stimuli no longer provokes a rxn GENERALIZATION - same rxn to similar stimuli DISCRIMINATION - respond diff’t to diff’t stimuli PAVLOV & HIS DOGS 1st identified by Ivan Pavlov in the early 1900s when conducting digestive process research on dogs His research kept getting disrupted b/c the dogs would salivate before they saw the food Dogs salivated just when they heard the cart in the hall or when they saw the person who usually fed them What causes the dogs to salivate when there’s not meat present? • Pavlov set up an experiment! Can dogs learn to produce a certain response when the ‘natural’ stimulus isn’t present? • Dogs naturally salivate when they see meat. Meat is the UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS. – Not taught to salivate when they see meat • Pavlov rang a bell. This was the NEUTRAL STIMULUS – Dogs don’t naturally salivate when they hear a bell • Pavlov rang a bell & then gave the dogs meat. They salivated! The pairing of the bell (NS) & getting meat (UCS) was repeated several times. Eventually, Pavlov just rang the bell when he had no meat. Now, the bell itself was enough to make the dogs salivate! The bell was the CONDITIONED STIMULUS The previous neutral bell now has meaning… an association was made! When they salivated b/c of the bell, this was a CONDITIONED RESPONSE Dogs salivated when there’s no food They learned that the sound of the bell meant that they were going to be given meat! WATSON, LITTLE ALBERT, & THE WHITE RAT Babies have 3 nat’l emotional responses to stimuli - fear, rage, & love Little Albert was taught to fear white rats… he had no natural fear of them. But he did have a natural fear of loud banging. When the white rat & the loud banging was paired together, he learned to fear both. He was also fearful of all white furry things (cotton balls, white bath towels, kittens, etc). He had the same response w/ similar objects. NS - rat UCS – loud bang UCR - crying CS – rat CR – crying Assoc? TASTE AVERSIONS Assoc. = nausea + certain food Evolutionary PHOBIAS Irrational, intense, persistent fear of an object or situation Danger of object or situation is exaggerated Causes a biological response Range of intensity 3 types Situations Agoraphobia Specific PTSD Undergo trauma Respond to similar stimuli once out of the threatening situation Emotional arousal, fight-or-flight rxn, dreams HELPING PEOPLE get rid of fearful/unwanted responses to stimuli? -- rxn + rxn SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION – use a sequence of events to gradually reduce the unwanted response COUNTERCONDITIONING – replacing the negative response with the expectation of pleasure OPERANT CONDITIONING LEARNING BY CONSEQUENCES A CERTAIN BEHAVIOR IS REINFORCED (will do it again) OR PUNISHED (won’t do it). We don’t just react to our environ, we actively choose behavior in order to avoid punishment & gain pleasure analyze what happens when we act a certain way manipulate behavior to get pleasure & avoid punishment/pain. HOW DOES THIS WORK? Change frequency of a behavior person acts first, then learns whether that’s a wanted or unwanted behavior based on the rxn of others behavior & its consequences. Wanted behavior is reinforced unwanted behavior is ignored or punished REINFORCEMENT process of applying a reinforcer (pleasant stimulus) to encourage a behavior i.e. giving praise, cookie, grades Increases behavior Behavior that is reinforced (+ or -) is more likely to be repeated POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT BEHAVIOR PRESENT A PLEASANT STIMULUS BEHAVIOR ENCOURAGED Intrinsic vs. extrinsic reward Something that is desired Ex. candy, feeling of accomplishment, sticker, praise, • NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT • BEHAVIOR REMOVAL OF AN UNPLEASANT STIMULUS ENCOURAGES BEHAVIOR • Something negative, is removed after the desired behavior occurs • Ex. Seat belt alarm, leaving a movie if it’s bad, removing a rock in shoe, turning down volume if too loud, etc. PUNISHMENT -- consequence discourages the behavior frequency of behavior opposite of + & -- reinforcement Behavior that is punished is less likely to be repeated Present an unpleasant stimulus Remove a pleasant stimulus EFFECTIVE CONSEQUENCES Ask what they did wrong (or right) Take ownership Talk about why punishment is happening… specify the behavior & why it’s wrong prevents confusion, fear, rage, etc… Give behavior options Prevents sneaking around behavior Use ‘I’ or ‘help’ language Switch up punishers & reinforcers Prevents habituation Identify & reinforce acceptable behaviors Make sure punishment fits the crime… & don’t change your mind Model appropriate behavior COMBO OF PUNISHMENT & REINFORCEMENT! Learning Disabilities Normal or IQ but brain’s ability to receive & process info is affected Lasts a lifetime Dyscalculia Dyslexia Dysgraphia Aud. Processing Comorbid w/ ADD or ADHD SOCIAL LEARNING LEARNING BY OBSERVING, MODELING, & IMITATING SOCIAL LEARNING Alter own behavior by observing & imitating the behavior of others We are able to analyze events & make decisions before responding or acting can learn w/o it ever happening to us HOW DOES IT WORK? @ least 2 ppl watching others & deciding what to imitate/model We want to feel a connection & approval by other ppl BOBO DOLLS Albert Bandura thought earlier explanations of learning were oversimplified & robotic Some learning can occur by exposure & imitation alone. Do kids who observe aggressive adult models become aggressive themselves? Scenario #1 Scenario # 2 Scenario # 3 Scenario # 4 SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY WHEN WE BECOME THE LABEL!! People have a tendency to act in a way that is similar to the expectations of others… high or low! We will look for exs. in our lives that confirm the label STEREOTYPES!!! Are labels a good or bad thing? BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Systematic application of learning principles to change people’s patterns of thoughts, actions, & feelings 1) Overcome -- feelings & thoughts (CC) 2) Reform prob. behaviors (Op Cond.) 3) Teach & model desired behaviors (Soc) COGNITIVE LEARNING LEARNING THROUGH ABSTRACT THINKING & PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE Focus on how complex knowledge is obtained, processed, organized, & used (higher thinking processes) We can learn by just being exposed to something Role of motivation LATENT LEARNING Learning that occurs but isn’t exhibited until there’s a reason or incentive to do it Adapt through experience Difference btw learning how to do something & actually doing it. Aware (?) Cognitive Map: form mental images of where we’re located in the environ; dev. naturally through experience mental picture G(1) rats in a maze for 1 hour. G(2) rats didn’t explore @ all Food was placed @ the end of the maze. Which G found it the fastest? INSIGHT Analyze the problem as a whole recognize previously unseen relationships Moments when… it just ‘clicks’ & you ‘just know’ what to do KOHLER & THE CHIMPS WHAT’S MEMORY? Ability to input, store, retain, & retrieve info Selective: pay attn to, think about, & store!!! 3 STAGES OF MEMORY filter, organize, & store info Each stage of memory meets difft needs SENSORY MEMORY Holds exact replica of each sensory experience for ¼ of a second Subconscious: Is it worth paying attn to? No = disappears forever; not aware of it Yes = transferred to working memory WORKING/SHORT-TERM MEMORY Everything you’re conscious of; lasts 20 sec. & holds 10 ‘items’ WORKING (WM) or SHORT TERM MEMORY (STM) 20 seconds & hold up to 10 itemS Anything in your conscious mind LONG TERM MEMORY vast storage w/ no limits Memories that make it here last FOREVER * When info is put into LTM, chemical and neural changes occur in the brain – making it more permanent * MEMORIES/INFO STORED IN LTM ARE USELESS UNLESS THEY CAN BE RETRIEVED! TYPES OF MEMORIES IMPLICIT vs. Info that unconsciously enters & affects behaviors, thoughts, & emotions DECLARATIVE EXPLICIT Conscious & intentional recall of info vs. factual info PROCEDURAL how to do things EPISODIC SEMANTIC Personal facts & experiences General facts (memorization) YOUR INCREDIBLE FILING SYSTEM! memories stored in an organized way that help us make sense of what we know & the world around us. systematically make connections among certain memories & info… called a SCHEMA Your understanding of something… framework used to make sense of the world; it’s how all that stuff fits in your head. make connections among info. & help to ‘block’ incorrect connections from forming. quickly recall & use information. New info: 1) alter (attach to old info) 2) reject Confusion occurs when what we see or hear something that doesn’t ‘match’ our existing schema. WHAT EFFECTS WHAT WE REMEMBER? emotional state Intense/excitable Usage Maintain neural connections biological factors activates chemicals Sleep deprivation, meaningful hunger, illness More meaningful, sensory experience the easier it is to More senses involved = remember more likely to remember pay attn 10% WE REMEMBER of what we READ 20% of what we HEAR 30% of what we SEE 50% of what we SEE & HEAR 70% of what we DISCUSS 80% of what we EXPERIENCE (do) 95% of what we TEACH OTHERS Accuracy of Memory BASED ON OUR PERCEPTION!!!! INACCURATE MEMORY ‘fill in the gaps’ of memory record by making up what is missing Adopt other ppl’s memories RECALL Reconstruct previously learned info RECOGNITION Relies directly on experience – more accurate WHICH FACES DO YOU RECOGNIZE? DISORDERS ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA can’t form new lasting memories after brain trauma; memory span only lasts seconds or minutes RETROGRADE AMNESIA inability to recall past memories; but can form new lasting memories after brain trauma LACUNAR AMNESIA loss of memory of a specific traumatic event; creates a ‘gap’ in the memory record REPRESSED MEMORY A certain memory is tied to trauma & unavailable for recall; psych. damaging if remembered MEMORY DISTRUST SYNDROME someone is unable to trust his/her own memory; constant confusion about the major aspects of many memories BLACKOUT PHENOMENON excessive alcohol consumption; stress; extreme emotion; creates ‘gap’ in memory record INFANT AMNESIA lack of memories from the 1st few years of life Why? trauma (repressed) ◦ These memories are nonverbal ◦ Hippocampus isn’t mature ◦ Babies don’t have sense of ‘self’ ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE progressive, terminal, no cure; break-down of memories Cause? – deposits of protein inside & between neurons: block ability of neurons to communicate 15% of ppl develop Alzheimer’s by the time they’re 75 ALZHEIMER’S BRAINS VS. NORMAL BRAINS DEMENTIA SYNDROME Irreversible decline of mental functions ◦ thinking, memory, logic, & reasoning: severely interferes w/ daily functioning. changes in personality, mood, and behavior; false memories, absent memories Cause? – disease, age, stroke, head injury, substance abuse, infection, fluid in the brain ½ of ppl 80+ have dementia THINGS YOU CAN DO TO IMPROVE YOUR MEMORY A good memory depends on a healthy brain. Follow good health practices – exercise, nutrition, sleep, stress Pay close attn, to what you really want to remember. It seems too much of the time we go through life on ‘auto pilot’ or ‘cruise control’! Rehearsal is necessary. Repeat info. you need to remember in your head at least 3 times. Practice makes a memory closer to perfect! Minimize distractions – minimize noise & mental distractions Use imagery & visualization techniques. Memory tends to be very vivid. As you learn info, try to visualize along with words. Mnemonic devices. Rhymes or acronyms Relate info. to what you already know Expose yourself to new experiences Read & learn to keep your brain active! Keep yourself organized! Don’t unrealistically expect yourself to remember every due date, appt., schedule, & things to do – it’s impossible! Use an agenda book! Keep a file-folder system for important papers (i.e. insurance, receipts, bank statements, medical, school, etc.) for easy retrieval