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Carbon Compounds • Organic Chemistry – the study of all compounds that contain bonds between carbon atoms. • Carbon has 4 electron in is outside orbital – each can form a strong covalent bond – bonds with many elements including other carbon atoms • forms carbon rings and chains, millions of complex structures The most important biological compounds are polymers Polymers (poly = many) The polymers are: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids (fats), and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA). A polymer is made up of a chain of many monomers linked together MONOMERS (mono = one) Monomers are: amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and nucleotides. These are made (dehydration synthesis) or broken down (hydrolysis) over and over in living cells. macromolecules Large polymers are also called _______________ Macromolecules are formed by joining monomers usually _________________, by reactions involving the loss of water = DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS ________________________. Note: enzymes that speed up dehydration synthesis reactions are called dehydrogenases _____________. Chains of monomers are called POLYMERS _________ HYDROLYSIS The breaking of a polymer into units is ______________ (i.e. done by adding water to polymer). H H H H Note: enzymes that speed up hydrolysis reactions are called hydrolases __________ Monomers (sub units) Polymers Polymers a) b) c) d) Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) H2 O Hydrolysis Energy Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) Energy Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) H2 O Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) Energy Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Dehydration Synthesis H2 O Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) Energy H2 O Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Dehydration Synthesis Energy H2 O Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) Energy H2 O Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) d) Dehydration Synthesis Energy H2 O Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acid c) d) Energy H2 O Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (Fats) d) Dehydration Synthesis Energy H2 O Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acid c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Energy H2 O Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (Fats) d) Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA) Dehydration Synthesis Energy H2 O Hydrolysis Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acid c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Energy H2 O Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) H2 O These reactions require: Dehydration Synthesis 1. ATP energy 2. Water Hydrolysis 3. Enzymes Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides Energy Sugars are also known as saccarides. Carbohydrates usually end in ‘ose’. The basic sugar molecule is GLUCOSE: C6 H12 O6. Glucose has a ring structure. Other monosaccharides include fructose, ribose, deoxyribose When two sugars bind together via DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS a disaccharide is formed. • glucose + glucose forms the sugar maltose • glucose + fructose forms the sugar sucrose • galactose + glucose forms the sugar lactose When many sugars bind together via dehydration synthesis four types of polysaccharides may be formed: • Starch • Glycogen • Cellulose • Chitin • The cell walls of plants. • They are long chains of glucose molecules with no side chains. • No mammal can break this bond • This is why we cannot digest cellulose = FIBER. • Plants store their energy as starch • Is made up of many glucose molecules linked together • Starch has few side chains • Animals store their energy (extra glucose) as glycogen • We store glycogen in our liver and muscles • Is made up of many glucose molecules linked together • Has many side chains • Made by animals and fungi • Very strong • Makes structures like exo-skeletons, fingernails, claws, and beaks 1. Energy: when the bonds between Carbon atoms are broken, the energy released can be used by cells. • Carbohydrates are the primary energy molecules for all life. 2. Structural: Cellulose is the major structural compound in plants Lipids are made up of the elements C H O but in no set ratio. Lipids are large molecules that are insoluble in water. Composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to 1 glycerol. 1. Saturated fats: • There are no double bonds in the carbon chains of the fatty acids. • The carbons are filled with hydrogens. • Unhealthy. • They mostly come from animals. • Become solid at room temperature. Examples: lard, butter, animal fats… 2. Unsaturated fats: • There are one (monounsaturated) or more double bonds (polyunsaturated). • Mostly come from plants. • They are liquid at room temperature. • Healthy Examples: olive oil, corn oil, palm oil… Are used to make up the two layered cell membrane of all cells. • The overall structure has two different ends – The phosphate head is water soluble (hydrophilic) – The fatty acid tails is not water soluble (hydrophobic) Steroids structurally look very different from lipids, but are also water insoluble. They are made up of 4 Carbon ring molecules fused together. Examples: testosterone, estrogen, cholesterol, and vitamin D. Used as sex hormones 1. Long term storage for energy (more efficient spacewise than glycogen or starch). 2. Insulation and protection in animals 3. Making some hormones (steroids) 4. Structure of cell membranes. Without lipids, we would have no cells. 1. Proteins are made up of the elements C H O and N (but in no set ratio). 2. Proteins are chains of Amino Acids (usually 75 or more) that bond together via dehydration synthesis. 3. 40% of the average human body is made up of protein. 1. The building blocks of Proteins are amino acids. 2. There are three parts to an amino acids: 1. Amino Group (NH2 or NH3+) acts as a base (accepts H+) 2. Carboxyl Group (COOH or COO-) acts as an acid (donates H+) 3. R Group: there are 20 different possible R groups The amino acids bind together with a peptide bond. The PEPTIDE bond is formed between C and N through dehydration synthesis. Bonding continues until ultimately you end up with a POLYPEPTIDE (which can have anywhere between 30 to 30,000 amino acids). Another name for a polypeptide is protein. Every protein is different because the ORDER of amino acids is different. The chains come together differently due to the order of the different R groups and how they bond together. This structural difference also makes the proteins functionally different. This is the first level of how proteins are formed. It is simply the order of amino acids joined together with peptide bonds. If you change the order of amino acids, the protein may not be able to do its job. This is the second step in the formation of a protein. The Hydrogen bonding causes the chain of amino acids to twist into either a spiral called an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet. The next interactions take place between the R groups of the amino acids . Some R groups are reactive and will interact with other reactive R groups in the chain. It is the 3-D shape that will determine the protein’s job or role in the body. The last level in protein formation is not seen in all proteins. However, some proteins are actually 2 or more molecules joined to form a functional protein. They are held together with an ionic bond. Two examples: Insulin has 2 subunits Hemoglobin has 4 subunits. Peptide Bonds Hydrogen Bonds Interactions between R groups Ionic Bonds The final shape of a protein (its tertiary or quaternary structure) is very specific and enables it to do its job/function. Any change in a proteins’ shape will affect its function. Denaturation is when a protein's structure is lost. When a protein is denatured, the protein can’t do its job and becomes useless. How can this happen? There are three common ways: 1. Temperature: High temperatures affect the weak Hydrogen bonds and can distort or break them, thus changing the structural shape. A slight increase in temperature an cause a reversible change (ie: fever). A high temperature increase can cause an irreversible change (ie: cooking an egg). How can this happen? There are three common ways: 2. Chemicals: Heavy metals such as lead and mercury are large atoms that are attracted the R groups of amino acids. They bond to the R group and distort the protein’s shape. This is usually irreversible (they usually don’t want to ‘let go’). How can this happen? There are three common ways: 3. pH: As some of the R groups are acids and some are bases, every protein (enzyme) has a preferred pH. Any change in pH causes a change in the acid-base R group interactions and this will change the shape of the protein. 1. Structural: proteins help make up all structures in living things Like: Keratin: nails, hair, horns, feathers Actin & Myosin: muscle proteins Collagen: bones, teeth, cartilage, tendon, ligament, blood vessels, skin matrix 2. Functional: other proteins help us to keep our bodies functioning properly and to digest our food. Enzymes: are proteins that are catalysts which speed up reactions and control all cell activities. Hemoglobin 3.Food Source: once we have used up all of our carbohydrates and fats, proteins will be used for energy. Proteins are worth the least amount of energy per gram. Nucleic Acids are made up of the elements C H O P and N (but in no set ratio). Are found in the nucleus of cells. There are two types, both of which are very LARGE. 1. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid 2. RNA: Ribonucleic Acid All nucleic acids are composed of units called NUCLEOTIDES, which are composed of three sub-molecules: 1. Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) 2. Phosphate 3. Nitrogen Base They are formed by joining their subunits together via dehydration synthesis (nucleotide + nucleotide … = nucleic acid). This is quite a complex process to which we will devote an entire unit to. a)Directs and controls all cell activities by making all of the proteins and enzymes b) Contains all of the genetic information necessary to make one complete organism of very exact specifications RNA is made by DNA. It is not confined to the nucleus, it moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm of the cell. The function of RNA is to assist DNA in making proteins.