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Chapter 9 Intro: An Overview of Carbohydrates (Ch. 5) 1. What are carbohydrates & what are they made of? – – Sugars Made of monosaccharides • • • • CH20 Sugars end in -ose Nutrient for cells Carbon skeleton is used for other organic molecules Figure 5.3 Examples of monosaccharides Triose sugars Pentose sugars (C3H6O3) (C5H10O5) H O H Aldoses C O H O C C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH HO C H C OH H H C OH H H H H C H C OH H HO C H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H H Glucose Galactose H C OH H C O H C OH H C OH C O O C OH H C OH HO H H C OH H C OH Dihydroxyacetone H C OH H C OH H H C OH H Ribulose O C H Ribose Ketoses H C Glyceraldehyde Figure 5.3 Hexose sugars (C6H12O6) C H H Fructose Figure 5.4 Linear & ring forms of glucose O H 1C H HO 2 3 C 6CH OH C H H C 5 5C H H 4 H 2OH 6 C H OH 4C OH OH OH O 3 C H 2C 2OH 5C H H OH C 6CH O H H 4C 1C CH2OH O OH H OH 3C 6 H 1C H 2C 4 HO H OH 3 OH H H 1 2 OH OH H H O 5 OH OH H Figure 5.4 (a) Linear and ring forms. Chemical equilibrium between the linear and ring structures greatly favors the formation of rings. To form the glucose ring, carbon 1 bonds to the oxygen attached to carbon 5. Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules 1. 2. What are carbohydrates & what are they made of? How are monomers added together to form complex carbs? (a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose. The bonding of two glucose units forms maltose. The glycosidic link joins the number 1 carbon of one glucose to the number 4 carbon of the second glucose. Joining the glucose monomers in a different way would result in a different disaccharide. CH2OH CH2OH H O H OH H OH HO H H H HO O H OH H OH H CH2OH H OHOH H O H OH H HO H 1–4 1 glycosidic linkage H 4 O H OH H H OH O H OH CH2OH H OH OH H2O Glucose Glucose CH2OH H (b) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of HO sucrose. Sucrose is a disaccharide formed from glucose and fructose. Notice that fructose, though a hexose like glucose, forms a five-sided ring. O H OH H H CH2OH H OH HO CH2OH O H H H HO CH2OH OH OH Maltose H O H OH H 1–2 H glycosidic 1 linkage Fructose 2 H H CH2OH OH H OH Sucrose H HO O HO H2O Glucose CH2OH O Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules 1. 2. 3. What are carbohydrates & what are they made of? How are monomers added to carbs? What are polysaccharides used for? – Energy storage • • – Starch – plants Glycogen – animals Structural support • • Cellulose Chitin Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules H OH CH2OH O OH H OH H H H NH C O CH3 (a) The structure of the chitin monomer. (b) Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods. This cicada is molting, shedding its old exoskeleton and emerging in adult form. (c) Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible surgical thread that decomposes after the wound or incision heals. Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules Chloroplast Starch Mitochondria Giycogen granules 0.5 m 1 m Amylose Amylopectin (a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide Glycogen (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide H H 4 CH2O H O H OH H H OH HO H OH glucose (a) O CH2O H O H OH H C H C OH H HO C H 4 H C OH H C OH H C OH OH 1 HO H H OH glucose and glucose ring structures CH2O H O CH2O H O HO 4 1 OH O CH2O H O HO (c) Cellulose: 1– 4 linkage of glucose monomers 1 OH 4 OH O CH2O H 1 OH O 4 OH O OH OH O OH CH2O H O O 1 OH OH OH O OH 4 O OH OH (b) Starch: 1– 4 linkage of glucose monomers 1 OH CH2O H O CH2O H O OH O CH2O H OH 6. Why do we poop corn? (*sorry for the visual) Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules Starch Cellulose Cow can digest cellulose well; no need to eat other sugars Gorilla can’t digest cellulose well; must add another sugar source, like fruit to diet Helpful bacteria • How can herbivores digest cellulose so well? – BACTERIA live in their digestive systems & help digest cellulose-rich (grass) meals Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. Why is respiration important? - Consumption of food & oxygen to produce CO2, water & energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP + heat) Light energy ECOSYSTEM CO2 + H2O Photosynthesis in chloroplasts Organic + O2 Cellular molecules respiration in mitochondria ATP powers most cellular work Heat energy Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. Why is respiration important? - Consumption of food & oxygen to produce CO2, water & energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP + heat) Exergonic (releases lots of energy… -686 kcal/mol) All foods can be metabolized as fuel (carbs, proteins, fats) Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? - Reduction & oxidation LEO says GER Loss of Electrons – Oxidation : Gain of Electrons – Reduction Hint: electrons move with H atoms…H = e- + H+ ┌----oxidation-----┐ C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP + heat) └----reduction----┘ ENERGY COUPLING!!! (Oxidation is exergonic…reduction is endergonic) Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? - Glycolysis Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) Oxidative Phosphorylation - Electron Transport Chain (ETC) Chemiosmosis Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy Electrons carried via NADH Electrons carried via NADH and FADH2 Citric acid cycle Glycolysis Glucose Pyruvate Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis Mitochondrion ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation ATP Oxidative phosphorylation Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? - Glucose (6-C) is split in the cytosol into two 3-C pyruvate molecules 10 steps NO oxygen needed Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy Glycolysis ATP Citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP Energy investment phase Glucose 2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP used 4 ATP formed Energy payoff phase 4 ADP + 4 P 2 NAD+ + 4 e- + 4 H + 2 NADH + 2 H+ 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O Glucose 4 ATP formed – 2 ATP used 2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H + 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O 2 ATP 2 NADH + 2 H+ Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made in glycolysis? - Substrate-level phosphorylation – ATP produced from the transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP ATP made one at a time Enzyme Enzyme ADP P Substrate + Product ATP Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? - NAD+ - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Coenzyme (form of niacin…a vitamin!) Accepts 2 e- and a H+ NADH and H+ will be very important later in the respiration reaction, as they participate in more ATP formation! Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 2 e– + 2 H+ NAD+ Dehydrogenase O NH2 H C CH2 O O– O O P O H – O P O HO O N+ Nicotinamide (oxidized form) H OH HO CH2 NH2 N N H O H HO N H OH N 2 e– + H+ H Reduction of NAD+ + 2[H] (from food) Oxidation of NADH NADH H O C H N H+ NH2 Nicotinamide (reduced form) + H+ Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? - Active transport across membrane 3 step process Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION NAD+ NADH + H+ O– S CoA C O 2 C C O O 1 3 CH3 Pyruvate Transport protein CH3 Acetyl CoA CO2 Coenzyme A Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? What happens during the Citric Acid Cycle? 8. - Mitochondrial matrix 8 steps “Spins" 2X per glucose (1X for each pyruvate) Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy Pyruvate (from glycolysis, 2 molecules per glucose) Glycolysis Citric acid cycle ATP ATP Oxidative phosphorylation ATP CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH + H+ Acetyl CoA CoA CoA Citric acid cycle 2 CO2 3 NAD+ FADH2 FAD 3 NADH + 3 H+ ADP + P i ATP Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? What happens during the Citric Acid Cycle? How many ATP so far? 8. 9. - 4 total, 2 from glycolysis & 2 from Krebs Cycle ALL from substrate-level phosphorylation Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? 8. What happens during the Citric Acid Cycle? 9. How many ATP so far? 10. How many electron carriers so far? - 10 NADH - 2 FADH2 Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? 8. What happens during the Citric Acid Cycle? 9. How many ATP so far? 10. How many electron carriers so far? 11. What happens during electron transport? - rxns in inner mitochondrial membrane - electrons flow from electron carriers to electronegative O2 - many SMALL steps instead of one BIG step 12. Why do electron carriers NEED to “break the fall?” Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy H2 + 1/2 O2 2H /2 O2 1 + (from food via NADH) Explosive release of heat and light energy ATP Free energy, G Free energy, G 2 H+ + 2 e– Controlled release of energy for synthesis of ATP ATP ATP 2 e– /2 O2 1 2 H+ H2O (a) Uncontrolled reaction H2O (b) Cellular respiration Figure 9.13 Free-energy change during electron transport Glycolysis Citirc acid cycle ATP ATP Oxidative phosphorylation ATP NADH 50 Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcl/mol) FADH2 40 FMN I Fe•S O Cyt b 30 20 Multiprotein complexes FAD Fe•S II III Fe•S Cyt c1 Cyt c IV Cyt a Cyt a3 10 0 2H++ 2 O2 1 H2O Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? What happens during the Citric Acid Cycle? How many ATP so far? How many electron carriers so far? What happens during electron transport? Why do electrons NEED to “break the fall?” How is ATP made during chemiosmosis? Figure 9.14 ATP synthase, a molecular mill INTERMEMBRANE SPACE H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ A rotor within the membrane spins clockwise when H+ flows past it down the H+ gradient. A stator anchored in the membrane holds the knob stationary. H+ ADP + Pi MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX ATP A rod (or “stalk”) extending into the knob also spins, activating catalytic sites in the knob. Three catalytic sites in the stationary knob join inorganic Phosphate to ADP to make ATP. Figure 9.15 Chemiosmosis couples the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis Glycolysis ATP Citirc acid cycle ATP Inner Mitochondrial membrane Oxidative phosphorylation electron transport and chemiosmosis ATP H+ H+ H+ Intermembrane space Protein complex of electron carners Q I Inner mitochondrial membrane IV III ATP synthase II FADH2 NADH Mitochondrial matrix H+ Cyt c NAD+ FAD+ 2 H+ + 1/2 O2 H2O ADP + ATP Pi (Carrying electrons from food) H+ Chemiosmosis Electron transport chain Electron transport and pumping of protons (H+), ATP synthesis powered by the flow which create an H+ gradient across the membrane Of H+ back across the membrane Oxidative phosphorylation 1 NADH = 3 ATP (new research indicates 2.5 ATP) 1 FADH2 = 2 ATP (new research indicates 1.5 ATP) Figure 9.16 ATP yield per molecule of glucose at each stage of cellular respiration Electron shuttles span membrane CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION 2 NADH or 2 FADH2 2 NADH 2 NADH Glycolysis Glucose 2 Pyruvate 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation Maximum per glucose: 6 NADH Citric acid cycle 2 FADH2 Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis + 2 ATP + about 32 or 34 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, depending by substrate-level on which shuttle transports electrons phosphorylation from NADH in cytosol About 36 or 38 ATP Figure 9.16 ATP yield per molecule of glucose at each stage of cellular respiration (UPDATED) Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? What happens during the Citric Acid Cycle? How many ATP so far? How many electron carriers so far? What happens during electron transport? Why do electrons NEED to “break the fall?” How is ATP made during chemiosmosis? What happens when there is no O2? - anaerobic respiration (fermentation) Figure 9.18 Pyruvate as a key juncture in catabolism Glucose CYTOSOL Pyruvate No O2 present Fermentation O2 present Cellular respiration MITOCHONDRION Ethanol or lactate Acetyl CoA Citric acid cycle Figure 9.17 Fermentation 2 ADP + 2 Glucose 2 ATP Pi Glycolysis O– C O C O CH3 2 Pyruvate 2 NADH +2 H+ 2 NAD+ H 2 CO2 H H C OH C CH3 O CH3 2 Acetaldehyde 2 Ethanol (a) Alcohol fermentation 2 ADP + 2 Glucose P i Glycolysis 2 NAD+ O C O H C 2 ATP OH CH3 2 Lactate (b) Lactic acid fermentation 2 NADH O– C O C O CH3 2 Pyruvate Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? What happens during the Citric Acid Cycle? How many ATP so far? How many electron carriers so far? What happens during electron transport? Why do electrons NEED to “break the fall?” How is ATP made during chemiosmosis? What happens when there is no O2? How do the other foods we eat get catabolized? Figure 9.19 The catabolism of various molecules from food Proteins Carbohydrates Amino acids Sugars Glycolysis Glucose Glyceraldehyde-3- P NH3 Pyruvate Acetyl CoA Citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation Fats Glycerol Fatty acids Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Why is respiration important? What are redox rxns? What are the 3 main steps of respiration? What happens during glycolysis? How is the ATP made? How do electrons get from glucose to O2? How does pyruvate get into the mitochondria for the Krebs Cycle? What happens during the Citric Acid Cycle? How many ATP so far? How many electron carriers so far? What happens during electron transport? Why do electrons NEED to “break the fall?” How is ATP made during chemiosmosis? What happens when there is no O2? How do the other foods we eat get catabolized? How is cellular respiration controlled? Figure 9.20 The control of cellular respiration Glucose AMP Glycolysis Fructose-6-phosphate – Inhibits Stimulates + Phosphofructokinase – Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate Inhibits Pyruvate Citrate ATP Acetyl CoA Citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation