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Macromolecules Building Complex Molecules That Comprise Living Things Macromolecules: Polymers Made of Repeating Monomers Macromolecule Monomer Unit Carbohydrates Sugars Lipids Proteins Fatty acids Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Amino acids Carbohydrates: Structure • Simple – Monosaccharides= one sugar unit Glucose = blood sugar All cells use glucose for energy. Carbohydrates: Structure • Simple – Disaccharides = two sugar units Glycosidic Linkage CH2OH HOCH2 O H O H H + H H HO OH H CH2OH HO OH HO HO H H HO Glucose + Fructose CH2OH H HOCH2 O O H H H HO H OH H O HO CH2OH H H HO HOH HO Sucrose & Water Carbohydrates: Structure • Complex – Polysaccharides= many sugar units found in plant cell walls energy storage in plants energy storage in animals Chemically- Modified Carbohydrates Sugar Phosphate Amino Sugars Galactosamine is found in cartilage Amino Sugar Chiton forms the exoskeleton of insects Carbohydrates: Functions • Energy source • Source of carbon skeletons for synthesis of other biological molecules • Structural component of cells • Cell-cell communication Eating Any Carbs Lately? How can I use this info? • Nutritionists recommend that carbohydrates be included as an important energy source in the diet • Emphasize – Complex Carbohydrates • Starch • Fiber (cellulose) Whole Grains – Naturally-occurring simple carbohydrates • Fructose from fruit • Lactose from milk Lipids: Structure • Triglyceride—predominant form in diet – One molecule of glycerol – Three fatty acids Lipids: Structure • Types of Fatty Acids – Saturated – 2H per internal carbon – Unsaturated -- <2H per internal carbon one or more double bonds • Monounsaturated – one double bond • Polyunsaturated – more than one double bond Triglyceride Formation H Glycerol Remove These Waters Add 3 Fatty Acids HC OH OH C O HCH HCH HCH H H Ester Linkage H C CH OH OH OH OH C O C O HCH HCH HCH HCH HCH HCH H H Triglyceride H H H HC O C O HCH C O HCH HCH HCH HCH H HCH H HOH C O C O HCH C O HCH HCH HCH HCH H HCH H HOH CH O C O HCH C O HCH HCH HCH HCH H HCH H HOH 3 Waters Which Is a Source of Unsaturated Fatty Acids? Linseed Oil Beef Fat Lipids: Structure •Phospholipid—component of cell membranes Polar Head Glycerol Hydrophilic Fatty Acid Tails Hydrophobic Lipids: Structure • Steroids – Linked carbon rings – Used to produce • Hormones • Cholesterol • Vitamin D2 Testosterone Lipids: Functions • Concentrated energy source • Structural components of cell membranes – Phospholipids – Cholesterol • Carotenoids capture light energy for photosynthesis • Communication – Steroid Hormones • Metabolism – Fat-soluble vitamins Cholesterol • Insulation Phospholipids • Protection from water – Waxes High Fat, Low Fat, No Fat… • • • • How can I use this info? Limit fats to < 30% of calories Limit saturated fats to < 10% of calories Limit cholesterol to 300 mg/day Avoid “trans” fatty acids in partially hydrogenated products • Emphasize – Unsaturated fatty acids from vegetables, fish, legumes, and nuts – Oils: mono- or polyunsaturated Proteins: Structure • Primary structure = chain of amino acids – Amino acids have common features Carboxylic Acid Group Amino Group R “Alpha” Carbon The “R” Group Differs for Each Amino Acid Proteins: Structure Forming the Protein Chain Phenylalanine Leucine Dehydration Synthesis between COOH & NH2 Proteins: Structure Forming the Protein Chain Peptide Bond Water Phenylalanine-Leucine Dipeptide Four Levels of Protein Structure Primary (Sequence) Tertiary (Folding by R-group interactions) Quaternary (Two or more chains associating) Secondary (Coiling by Hydrogen Bonding) Protein Folding Within the Cell • Proteins called chaperonins assist in proper folding of newly synthesized proteins • Some chaperonins “trap” proteins in a molecular cage to prevent interference in the folding process Four Levels of Protein Structure Primary Structure = sequence of amino acids in chain Carboxyl Terminus Amino Terminus Four Levels of Protein Structure • Secondary Structure Folded structure due to hydrogen bonds between the amino and acid groups of amino acids N C H O O C N C H O H O H N C N or Found in most proteins Found in silk Four Levels of Protein Structure • Tertiary Structure: Three dimensional folded structure due to attractions and repulsions between R groups Interactions in Tertiary Structure Ionic Bonding Hydrogen Bonding Hydrophobic Effect van der Waals forces Disulfide Bridge (covalent bond) Maintaining Protein Structure • Denaturation disrupts tertiary and secondary structure and is not usually reversible • Denaturation can be caused by heat, pH changes and other chemicals such as salts or charged ions Four Levels of Protein Structure • Quaternary Structure: Association of two or more protein chains eg. Hemoglobin is composed of 4 protein chains 2 are called alpha hemoglobin 2 are called beta hemoglobin Proteins: Functions • • • • • • • • Structural Component of Cells Control of Metabolic Reactions: enzymes Transport Protection and Support Movement Growth and Repair Defense Against Disease Communication/Regulation – Protein Hormones – Cell Receptors • Energy source Protein Protein For the Remaining Calories… How can I use this info? • Protein requirements are based on body size and needs for growth • 8 essential amino acids obtained from –Lean sources of animal protein –Complementary plant proteins • Beans + Grains • Beans + Seeds