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Transcript
Mr. Karns Biology Organics Slide 1 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Slide 2 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds The Chemistry of Carbon The Chemistry of Carbon Organic chemistry is the study of all compounds that contain bonds between carbon atoms. Carbon atoms have four valence electrons that can join with the electrons from other atoms to form strong covalent bonds. A carbon atom can bond to other carbon atoms, giving it the ability to form chains that are almost unlimited in length. Slide 3 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds The Chemistry of Carbon Living organisms are made of molecules that consist of carbon and other elements. Chains of carbon can even close upon themselves to form rings. Carbon has the ability to form millions of different large and complex structures. Slide 4 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Macromolecules Macromolecules Macromolecules are formed by a process known as polymerization. The smaller units, or monomers, join together to form polymers. Slide 5 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Macromolecules Monomers in a polymer may be identical, or the monomers may be different. Slide 6 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Macromolecules Four groups of organic compounds found in living things are: • carbohydrates • lipids • nucleic acids • proteins Slide 7 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, usually in a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1. There are 2 hydrogens to every 1 oxygen a 2 : 1 ratio like “surf city” not the beach boys, but Jan & Dean Slide 8 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Carbohydrates What is the function of carbohydrates? Slide 9 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Carbohydrates Living things use carbohydrates as their main source of energy. Plants and some animals also use carbohydrates for structural purposes. Animal- energy (mostly) Plant- structure and energy Slide 10 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Carbohydrates The breakdown of sugars, such as glucose, supplies immediate energy for all cell activities. Living things store extra sugar as complex carbohydrates known as starches. Slide 11 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Carbohydrates Starches and sugars are examples of carbohydrates that are used by living things as a source of energy. Starch Glucose Slide 12 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Carbohydrates Single sugar molecules are called monosaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose, galactose (a component of milk), and fructose (found in many fruits). The large macromolecules formed from monosaccharides are called polysaccharides. Slide 13 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Examples of monosaccharides Triose sugars Pentose sugars (C3H6O3) (C5H10O5) H O H Aldoses C O H O C C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH HO C H C OH H H C OH H H H H C H C OH H HO C H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H H Glucose Galactose H C OH H H C OH C O H C OH C O O C OH H C OH HO H H C OH H C OH Dihydroxyacetone H C OH H C OH H C OH H O C H Ribose Ketoses H C Glyceraldehyde H Ribulose Figure 5.3 Hexose sugars (C6H12O6) C H H Fructose Slide 14 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Carbohydrates Double sugar molecules are called Disaccharides. Disaccharides include sucrose or table sugar. It is made of a glucose and fructose bonded together. Molecular formula C12H O 22 11 and when it is made a water molecule is formed. Polysaccarides- Larger carbohydrates are called Polysaccharides meaning many sugars Starch in plants, cellulose in plants Animals- Glycogen (stored in the liver is a polysaccaride made of monomers of sugar) Chitin- insect exoskeletons are polysaccarides Slide 15 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Examples of disaccharides (a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose. The bonding of two glucose units H forms maltose. The glycosidic link joins the number 1 carbon of one glucose to the HO number 4 carbon of the second glucose. Joining the glucose monomers in a different way would result in a different disaccharide. CH2OH CH2OH O H OH H H H H OH HO H H OHOH H O H OH H CH2OH H 1–4 1 glycosidic linkage HO 4 O H H OH H OH O H OH H H OH OH H2O Glucose Glucose O H OH H (b) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of HO sucrose. Sucrose is a disaccharide formed H OH from glucose and fructose. Notice that fructose, though a hexose like Glucose glucose, forms a five-sided ring. Figure 5.5 H OH H OH CH2OH H O CH2OH CH2OH H OH HO Maltose CH2OH O H H HO CH2OH OH H H O H OH H 1–2 glycosidic 1 linkage H CH2OH O H 2 H HO O HO H CH2OH OH H OH H2O Fructose Sucrose Slide 16 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Lipids Lipids Lipids are generally not soluble in water. Lipids are made mostly from carbon and hydrogen atoms. Slide 17 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Lipids The common categories of lipids are: • fats • oils • waxes • steroids Slide 18 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Lipids What is the function of lipids? Slide 19 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Lipids Lipids can be used to store energy. Some lipids are important parts of biological membranes and waterproof coverings. Slide 20 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Lipids Many lipids are formed when a glycerol molecule combines with compounds called fatty acids. If each carbon atom in a lipid’s fatty acid chains is joined to another carbon atom by a single bond, the lipid is said to be saturated. The term saturated is used because the fatty acids contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms. Slide 21 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Lipids If there is at least one carbon-carbon double bond in a fatty acid, it is unsaturated. Lipids whose fatty acids contain more than one double bond are polyunsaturated. Lipids that contain unsaturated fatty acids tend to be liquid at room temperature. Slide 22 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Saturated fatty acids Have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible Have no double bonds Stearic acid Figure 5.12 (a) Saturated fat and fatty acid Slide 23 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Unsaturated fatty acids Have one or more double bonds Oleic acid Figure 5.12 (b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acid cis double bond causes bending Slide 24 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. Nucleic acids are polymers assembled from individual monomers known as nucleotides. Slide 25 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Nucleic Acids Nucleotides consist of three parts: • a 5-carbon sugar • a phosphate group • a nitrogenous base Individual nucleotides can be joined by covalent bonds to form a polynucleotide, or nucleic acid. Slide 26 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Nucleic Acids Slide 27 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Nucleic Acids What is the function of nucleic acids? Slide 28 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary, or genetic, information. There are two kinds of nucleic acids, ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA contains the sugar ribose. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose. Slide 29 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Proteins Proteins Proteins are macromolecules that contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Proteins are polymers of molecules called amino acids. Slide 30 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Proteins Amino acids are compounds with an amino group (-NH2) on one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) on the other end. Slide 31 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Proteins The portion of each amino acid that is different is a side chain called an R-group. Slide 32 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Proteins The instructions for arranging amino acids into many different proteins are stored in DNA. Protein Molecule Amino Acids Slide 33 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Proteins What is the function of proteins? Slide 34 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Proteins Some proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes. Some proteins are used to form bones and muscles. Other proteins transport substances into or out of cells or help to fight disease. Slide 35 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Enzymes Are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst, 1 Active site is available for 2 Substrate binds to a molecule the speeding upof substrate, chemical reactionsenzyme. Substrate reactant on which the enzyme acts. (sucrose) Glucose OH Enzyme (sucrase) H2O Fructose H O 4 Products are released. Figure 5.16 Slide 3 Substrate is converted 36 of 37 to products. End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Enzymes Slide 37 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Proteins Proteins can have up to four levels of organization: 1. Amino acids have a specific protein chain. 2. The amino acids within a chain can be twisted or folded. 3. The chain itself is folded. 4. If a protein has more than one chain, each chain has a specific arrangement in space. Slide 38 of 37 End Show Carbon Compounds Four Levels of2–3 Protein Structure Primary structure Is the unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide Amino HN + GlyProThrGly Thr 3 Amino end Gly acid subunits Glu CysLysSeu LeuPro Met Val Lys Val Leu Asp AlaVal ArgGly Ser Pro Ala GluLle Asp Thr Lys Ser LysTrpTyr LeuAla Gly lle Ser ProPhe HisGlu His Ala AlaThrPheVal Asn Glu Val Thr Asp Tyr Arg Ser Arg GlyPro Tyr ThrSer lle Ala Ala Leu Leu Ser Pro SerTyr Thr Ala Val Val LysGlu Thr AsnPro Figure 5.20 c o o– Carboxyl end Slide 39 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Secondary structure Is the folding or coiling of the polypeptide into a repeating configuration Includes the helix and the pleated sheet pleated sheet O H H C C N Amino acid subunits C N H R R O H H C C N C C N O H H R R O H H C C N C C N OH H R R R O R C H H R O C O C N H N H N H O C O C H C R H C R H C R H C R N H O C N H O C O C H C O N H N C C H R H R N Figure 5.20 C C H O H H C C N C C N OH H R O C H H H C N HC N C N HC N C H H C O C C O R R O R O C H H NH C N C H O C R C C O R R H C N HC N H O C H helix Slide 40 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Tertiary structure Is the overall three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide Results from interactions between amino acids and R groups Hyrdogen bond CH22 CH O H O CH H3C CH3 H3C CH3 CH Hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals interactions Polypeptid e backbone HO C CH2 CH2 S S CH2 Disulfide bridge O CH2 NH3+ -O C CH2 Ionic bond Slide 41 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Quaternary structure Is the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of two or more polypeptide subunits Polypeptid e chain Collagen Chains Iron Heme Chains Hemoglobin Slide 42 of 37 End Show 2–3 Carbon Compounds Denaturation Is when a protein unravels and loses its native conformation (Heating causes Denaturation) (wrong pH will also) Denaturation Normal protein Figure 5.22 Denatured protein Renaturation Slide 43 of 37 End Show 2–3 Click to Launch: Continue to: - or - Slide 44 of 37 End Show 2–3 Large carbohydrate molecules such as starch are known as a. lipids. b. monosaccharides. c. proteins. d. polysaccharides. Slide 45 of 37 End Show 2–3 Many lipids are formed from glycerol and a. fatty acids. b. monosaccharides. c. amino acids. d. nucleic acids. Slide 46 of 37 End Show 2–3 Proteins are among the most diverse macromolecules because a. they contain both amino groups and carboxyl groups. b. they can twist and fold into many different and complex structures. c. they contain nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. d. their R groups can be either acidic or basic. Slide 47 of 37 End Show 2–3 Which of the following statements about cellulose is true? a. Animals make it and use it to store energy. b. Plants make it and use it to store energy. c. Animals make it and use it as part of the skeleton. d. Plants make it and use it to give structural support to cells. Slide 48 of 37 End Show 2–3 A major difference between polysaccharides and proteins is that a. plants make polysaccharides, while animals make proteins. b. proteins are made of monomers, while polysaccharides are not. c. polysaccharides are made of monosaccharides, while proteins are made of amino acids. d. proteins carry genetic information, while polysaccharides do not. Slide 49 of 37 End Show END OF SECTION