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Mr. Karns
Biology
Organics
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
The Chemistry of Carbon
The Chemistry of Carbon
Organic chemistry is the study of all compounds
that contain bonds between carbon atoms.
Carbon atoms have four valence electrons that can
join with the electrons from other atoms to form
strong covalent bonds.
A carbon atom can bond to other carbon atoms,
giving it the ability to form chains that are almost
unlimited in length.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
The Chemistry of Carbon
Living organisms are made of molecules that consist
of carbon and other elements.
Chains of carbon can even close upon themselves
to form rings.
Carbon has the ability to form millions of different
large and complex structures.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Macromolecules
Macromolecules
Macromolecules are formed by a process known
as polymerization.
The smaller units, or monomers, join together to
form polymers.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Macromolecules
Monomers in a polymer
may be identical, or the
monomers may be
different.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Macromolecules
Four groups of organic compounds found
in living things are:
• carbohydrates
• lipids
• nucleic acids
• proteins
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are compounds made up of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, usually in a
ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.
There are 2 hydrogens to every 1 oxygen
a 2 : 1 ratio like “surf city”
not the beach boys, but Jan & Dean
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Carbohydrates
What is the function of carbohydrates?
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Carbohydrates
Living things use carbohydrates as their
main source of energy. Plants and some
animals also use carbohydrates for
structural purposes.
Animal- energy (mostly)
Plant- structure and energy
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Carbohydrates
The breakdown of sugars, such as glucose, supplies
immediate energy for all cell activities.
Living things store extra sugar as complex
carbohydrates known as starches.
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Carbohydrates
Starches and sugars are examples of
carbohydrates that are used by living things
as a source of energy.
Starch
Glucose
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Carbohydrates
Single sugar molecules are called
monosaccharides.
Monosaccharides include glucose, galactose (a
component of milk), and fructose (found in many
fruits).
The large macromolecules formed from
monosaccharides are called polysaccharides.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Examples of monosaccharides
Triose sugars Pentose sugars
(C3H6O3)
(C5H10O5)
H
O
H
Aldoses
C
O
H
O
C
C
OH
H
C
OH
H
C
OH
H
C
OH
H
C
OH
HO
C
H
C
OH
H
H
C
OH
H
H
H
H
C
H
C
OH
H
HO
C
H
C
OH
HO
C
H
H
C
OH
H
C
OH
H
C
OH
H
C
OH
H
H
Glucose
Galactose
H
C OH
H
H
C OH
C
O
H
C OH
C
O
O
C OH
H
C OH
HO
H
H
C OH
H
C OH
Dihydroxyacetone H C OH
H
C OH
H
C OH
H
O
C
H
Ribose
Ketoses
H
C
Glyceraldehyde
H
Ribulose
Figure 5.3
Hexose sugars
(C6H12O6)
C H
H
Fructose
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Carbohydrates
Double sugar molecules are called Disaccharides.
Disaccharides include sucrose or table sugar. It is
made of a glucose and fructose bonded together.
Molecular formula C12H O
22
11
and when it is made a water molecule is formed.
Polysaccarides- Larger carbohydrates are called
Polysaccharides meaning many sugars
Starch in plants, cellulose in plants
Animals- Glycogen (stored in the liver is a polysaccaride made of
monomers of sugar)
Chitin- insect exoskeletons are polysaccarides
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Examples of disaccharides
(a) Dehydration reaction
in the synthesis of
maltose. The bonding
of two glucose units
H
forms maltose. The
glycosidic link joins
the number 1 carbon
of one glucose to the HO
number 4 carbon of
the second glucose.
Joining the glucose
monomers in a
different way would
result in a different
disaccharide.
CH2OH
CH2OH
O
H
OH H
H
H
H
OH
HO
H
H
OHOH
H
O
H
OH H
CH2OH
H
1–4
1 glycosidic
linkage
HO
4
O
H
H
OH H
OH
O
H
OH
H
H
OH
OH
H2O
Glucose
Glucose
O
H
OH
H
(b) Dehydration reaction
in the synthesis of
HO
sucrose. Sucrose is
a disaccharide formed
H OH
from glucose and fructose.
Notice that fructose,
though a hexose like
Glucose
glucose, forms a
five-sided ring.
Figure 5.5
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
OH
HO
Maltose
CH2OH
O
H
H
HO
CH2OH
OH
H
H
O
H
OH
H
1–2
glycosidic
1
linkage
H
CH2OH
O
H
2
H
HO
O
HO
H
CH2OH
OH H
OH
H2O
Fructose
Sucrose
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Lipids
Lipids
Lipids are generally not soluble in water.
Lipids are made mostly from carbon and hydrogen
atoms.
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Lipids
The common categories of lipids are:
• fats
• oils
• waxes
• steroids
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Lipids
What is the function of lipids?
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Lipids
Lipids can be used to store energy. Some
lipids are important parts of biological
membranes and waterproof coverings.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Lipids
Many lipids are formed when a glycerol molecule
combines with compounds called fatty acids.
If each carbon atom in a lipid’s fatty acid chains is
joined to another carbon atom by a single bond, the
lipid is said to be saturated.
The term saturated is used because the fatty acids
contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen
atoms.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Lipids
If there is at least one carbon-carbon double bond in
a fatty acid, it is unsaturated.
Lipids whose fatty acids contain more than one
double bond are polyunsaturated.
Lipids that contain unsaturated fatty acids tend to be
liquid at room temperature.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Saturated fatty acids
Have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
possible
Have no double bonds
Stearic acid
Figure 5.12 (a) Saturated fat and fatty acid
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Unsaturated fatty acids
Have one or more double bonds
Oleic acid
Figure 5.12
(b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acid
cis double bond
causes bending
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are macromolecules containing
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and
phosphorus.
Nucleic acids are polymers assembled from
individual monomers known as nucleotides.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides consist of three parts:
• a 5-carbon sugar
• a phosphate group
• a nitrogenous base
Individual nucleotides can be joined by covalent
bonds to form a polynucleotide, or nucleic acid.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Nucleic Acids
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Nucleic Acids
What is the function of nucleic acids?
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary, or
genetic, information.
There are two kinds of nucleic acids, ribonucleic acid
(RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
RNA contains the sugar ribose.
DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Proteins
Proteins
Proteins are macromolecules that contain
nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Proteins are polymers of molecules called amino
acids.
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Proteins
Amino acids are compounds with an amino group
(-NH2) on one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH)
on the other end.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Proteins
The portion of each amino acid that is different is a
side chain called an R-group.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Proteins
The instructions for arranging amino acids into many
different proteins are stored in DNA.
Protein
Molecule
Amino
Acids
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Proteins
What is the function of proteins?
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Proteins
Some proteins control the rate of
reactions and regulate cell processes.
Some proteins are used to form bones
and muscles.
Other proteins transport substances into
or out of cells or help to fight disease.
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Enzymes
Are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst,
1 Active site is available for
2 Substrate binds to
a molecule
the
speeding
upof substrate,
chemical
reactionsenzyme.
Substrate
reactant on which the enzyme acts.
(sucrose)
Glucose
OH
Enzyme
(sucrase)
H2O
Fructose
H O
4 Products are released.
Figure 5.16
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3 Substrate is converted
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Enzymes
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Proteins
Proteins can have up to four levels of organization:
1. Amino acids have a specific protein chain.
2. The amino acids within a chain can be twisted
or folded.
3. The chain itself is folded.
4. If a protein has more than one chain, each
chain has a specific arrangement in space.
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Carbon
Compounds
Four Levels of2–3
Protein
Structure
Primary structure
Is the unique sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide
Amino
HN
+
GlyProThrGly
Thr
3
Amino
end
Gly
acid
subunits
Glu
CysLysSeu
LeuPro
Met
Val
Lys
Val
Leu
Asp
AlaVal ArgGly
Ser
Pro
Ala
GluLle
Asp
Thr
Lys
Ser
LysTrpTyr
LeuAla
Gly
lle
Ser
ProPhe
HisGlu
His
Ala
AlaThrPheVal
Asn
Glu
Val
Thr
Asp
Tyr
Arg
Ser
Arg
GlyPro
Tyr
ThrSer
lle
Ala
Ala
Leu
Leu
Ser
Pro
SerTyr
Thr
Ala
Val
Val
LysGlu
Thr
AsnPro
Figure 5.20
c
o
o–
Carboxyl end
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Secondary structure
Is the folding or coiling of the polypeptide into a
repeating configuration
Includes the  helix and the  pleated sheet
 pleated sheet
O H H
C C N
Amino
acid
subunits
C N
H
R
R
O H H
C C N
C C N
O H H
R
R
O H H
C C N
C C N
OH H
R
R
R
O
R
C
H
H
R
O C
O C
N H
N H
N H
O C
O C
H C R H C R
H C R H C
R
N H O C
N H
O C
O C
H
C
O
N H
N
C
C
H
R
H
R
N
Figure 5.20
C
C
H
O H H
C C N
C C N
OH H
R
O
C
H
H
H C N
HC N
C N HC N
C
H
H
C
O
C
C
O
R
R
O
R
O
C
H
H
NH C N
C
H
O C
R
C C
O
R
R
H
C
N HC N
H
O C
H
 helix
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Tertiary structure
Is the overall three-dimensional shape of a
polypeptide
Results from interactions between amino acids and R
groups
Hyrdogen
bond
CH22
CH
O
H
O
CH
H3C
CH3
H3C
CH3
CH
Hydrophobic
interactions and
van der Waals
interactions
Polypeptid
e
backbone
HO C
CH2
CH2 S S CH2
Disulfide bridge
O
CH2 NH3+ -O C CH2
Ionic bond
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Quaternary structure
Is the overall protein structure that results from the
aggregation of two or more polypeptide subunits
Polypeptid
e
chain
Collagen
 Chains
Iron
Heme
 Chains
Hemoglobin
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2–3 Carbon Compounds
Denaturation
Is when a protein unravels and loses its native conformation
(Heating causes Denaturation) (wrong pH will also)
Denaturation
Normal protein
Figure 5.22
Denatured protein
Renaturation
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2–3
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2–3
Large carbohydrate molecules such as starch
are known as
a. lipids.
b. monosaccharides.
c. proteins.
d. polysaccharides.
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2–3
Many lipids are formed from glycerol and
a. fatty acids.
b. monosaccharides.
c. amino acids.
d. nucleic acids.
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2–3
Proteins are among the most diverse
macromolecules because
a. they contain both amino groups and carboxyl
groups.
b. they can twist and fold into many different
and complex structures.
c. they contain nitrogen as well as carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
d. their R groups can be either acidic or basic.
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2–3
Which of the following statements about
cellulose is true?
a. Animals make it and use it to store energy.
b. Plants make it and use it to store energy.
c. Animals make it and use it as part of the
skeleton.
d. Plants make it and use it to give structural
support to cells.
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2–3
A major difference between polysaccharides and
proteins is that
a. plants make polysaccharides, while animals
make proteins.
b. proteins are made of monomers, while
polysaccharides are not.
c. polysaccharides are made of
monosaccharides, while proteins are made
of amino acids.
d. proteins carry genetic information, while
polysaccharides do not.
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