Download Basic Principle in Plant Physiology

Factors Affecting Rates of
Respiration
• Temperature- For every 10 degree C
rise in temperature between 0-35 C the
rate of respiration increases 2X – 4X.
• Storage temperature for harvested plant
parts is often critical because these parts
continue to respire after harvest ( a
catabolic process) which causes a build
up of heat, and the breakdown of the
product.
1
Factors Affecting Rates of
Respiration
• Most plants grow better when night
time temperatures are 5 degrees C
lower than day time temperatures.
• This is because lower night time
respiration reduces the use of
carbohydrates and allows more
carbohydrates to be stored or used
for growth.
2
Factors Affecting Rates of
Respiration
• Oxygen concentration- Generally
speaking, lower oxygen level results in
the reduction of respiration.
• Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage in
which oxygen is decreased is useful in
storage of fruits and vegetables
because of lower respiration rates.
3
Factors Affecting Rates of
Respiration
• Soil conditions- Compacted and/or
wet soil conditions result in low oxygen
in the root zone and reduced root
respiration.
• Consequently, roots don’t function well
in supplying mineral nutrients
essential for the activity of respiratory
enzymes which decreases overall
respiration.
4
Factors Affecting Rates of
Respiration
• Light- Lower light intensities result in
lower respiration rates.
– Lower photosynthesis rates in low light
supply fewer carbohydrates essential for
respiration.
• Plant growth- As a plant grows it
depends on energy to be supplied by
respiration.
– The more growth that is occurring, the
higher the respiration rate must be.
5
Summary of Respiration
• Aerobic Respiration
–
–
–
–
Glycolysis
Transition Rx.
Kreb’s Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
• Anaerobic Respiration
– Pyruvate 
• Lactic Acid
• Mixed Acids
• Alcohol + CO2
– Recycle NADH
– 2 ATP / Glucose
6
Amino Acid Catabolism
7
Amino Acids
• Building blocks for polymers called proteins
• Contain an amino group, –NH2, and a carboxylic
acid, –COOH
• Can form zwitterions: have both positively
charged and negatively charged groups on same
molecule
• 20 required for humans
8
9
10
Peptide Bond
• Connect amino acids from carboxylic acid to
amino group
• Produce amide linkage: -CONH• Holds all proteins together
• Indicate proteins by 3-letter abbreviation
11
Sequence of Amino Acids
• Amino acids need to be in correct order for
protein to function correctly
• Similar to forming sentences out of words
12
Transaminase enzymes (aminotransferases)
Catalyze the reversible transfer of an
amino group between two a-keto acids.
13
Example of a Transaminase reaction:
Aspartate donates its amino group, becoming the aketo acid oxaloacetate.
 a-Ketoglutarate accepts the amino group, becoming
the amino acid glutamate.
14
In another example, alanine becomes pyruvate as the
amino group is transferred to a-ketoglutarate.
15
Essential amino acids must be consumed in the diet.
Mammalian cells lack enzymes to synthesize their carbon
skeletons (a-keto acids). These include:
Isoleucine, leucine, & valine
Lysine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Phenylalanine (Tyr can be made from Phe.)
Methionine (Cys can be made from Met.)
Histidine (Essential for infants.)
16
Amino Acid Metabolism
•Metabolism of the 20 common amino acids is
considered from the origins and fates of their:
(1) Nitrogen atoms
(2) Carbon skeletons
•For mammals:
Essential amino acids must be obtained
from diet
Nonessential amino acids - can be
synthesized
17
The Nitrogen Cycle and Nitrogen
Fixation
• Nitrogen is needed for amino acids,
nucleotides
• Atmospheric N2 is the ultimate source of
biological nitrogen
• Nitrogen fixation: a few bacteria possess
nitrogenase which can reduce N2 to
ammonia
• Nitrogen is recycled in nature through the
nitrogen cycle
18
Fig 17.1 The Nitrogen cycle
19
Nitrogenase
• An enzyme present in Rhizobium bacteria
that live in root nodules of leguminous
plants
• Some free-living soil and aquatic bacteria
also possess nitrogenase
• Nitrogenase reaction:
N2 + 8 H+ + 8 e- + 16 ATP
2 NH3 + H2 + 16 ADP + 16 Pi
20
Assimilation of Ammonia
• Ammonia generated from N2 is assimilated
into low molecular weight metabolites such
as glutamate or glutamine
• At pH 7 ammonium ion predominates (NH4+)
• At enzyme reactive centers unprotonated
NH3 is the nucleophilic reactive species
21
A. Ammonia Is Incorporated into Glutamate
• Reductive amination of a-ketoglutarate by
glutamate dehydrogenase occurs in plants,
animals and microorganisms
22
Glutamine Is a Nitrogen Carrier in Many
Biosynthetic Reactions
• A second important route in assimilation of
ammonia is via glutamine synthetase
23
Glutamate synthase transfers a
nitrogen to a-ketoglutarate
Prokaryotes & plants
24
Alternate amino acid production
in prokaryotes
Especially used if [NH3] is low. Km of Gln
synthetase lower than Km of Glu dehydrogenase.
25
The First Step in Amino Acid Degradation is the Removal of
Nitrogen
•Amino acids released from protein turnover can be resynthesized into
proteins.
•Excess amino acids are degraded into specific compounds that can be
used in other
metabolic pathways.
•This process begins with the removal of the amino group, which can be
converted to
urea and excreted.
•The a-ketoids that remain are metabolized so that their carbon
skeletons can enter
glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, or the TCA cycle.
26
The Biosynthesis of Amino Acids
•Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and the nitrogen
source of many
other important molecules including nucleotides, neurotransmitters,
and prosthetic
groups such as porphyrins.
•Ammonia is the source of all nitrogen for all of the amino acids.
•The carbon backbones come from the glycolytic pathway, the pentose
phosphate
pathway, and/or the TCA cycle.
•Amino acid biosynthesis is feedback regulated to ensure that all
amino acids are
maintained in sufficient amounts for protein synthesis and other
processes.
27
Summary of Protein and Amino Acid Degradation
•Proteins are degraded to amino acids.
•Protein turnover is tightly regulated.
•The first step in amino acid degradation is the removal
of nitrogen.
•Ammonium ion is converted into urea in most terrestrial
vertebrates.
•Carbon atoms of degraded amino acids emerge as major
metabolic intermediates.
•Inborn errors of metabolism can disrupt amino acid
degradation.
28
Summary of Amino Acid Biosynthesis
•Microorganisms use ATP and a powerful reductant to reduce
atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia.
•Amino acids are made from intermediates of the TCA cycle
and other major pathways.
•Amino acid metabolism is regulated by feedback inhibition.
•Amino acids are precursors of many molecules.
29
Overview of Nucleotide Biosynthesis
•Nucleotides serve as active precursors of nucleic acids.
•ATP is the universal currency of energy.
•Nucleotide derivatives such as UDP-glucose participate in
bioynthetic processes.
•Nucleotides are essential components of signal transduction
pathways.
30
Two Classes of Pathways for the Synthesis
of Nucleotides.
•In the salvage pathway, a base is attached
to a ribose, activated in the form of 5phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP).
•In de novo synthesis, the base itself is
synthesized from simpler starting materials,
including amino acids.
•ATP hydrolysis is necessary for de novo
synthesis.
31
Summary of Nucleotide Biosynthesis
•In de novo synthesis, the pyrimidine ring is assembled from
bicarbonate, aspartate, and glutamine.
•Purine bases can be synthesized de novo or recycled by salvage
pathways.
•Deoxyribonucleotides are synthesized by the reduction of
ribonucleotides.
•Key steps in nucleotide biosynthesis are feeback regulated.
•NAD+, FAD, and Coenzyme A are formed from ATP.
•Disruptions in nucleotide metabolism can cause pathological
conditions.
32
Proteins
33
Structure of Proteins
• Four organizational levels
• Primary structure: amino acid sequence
• Secondary structure: arrangement of chains
around an axis
– Pleated sheet
– Alpha helix: right-handed helix
34
Pleated Sheets
35
Alpha Helix
36
Tertiary Structure
• Spatial
relationships of
amino acids
relatively far
apart in protein
chain
• Globular proteins:
compact
spherical shape
37
Quaternary Structure
• Structure when two
or more amino acid
sequences are
brought together
• Hemoglobin has four
units arranged in a
specific pattern
38
Intermolecular Forces in Proteins
•
•
•
•
Hydrogen bonding
Ionic bonds
Disulfide linkages
Dispersion forces
39
Protein metabolism
Transamination: use the essential AA to
synthesize the others!
40
Protein metabolism
Another route:
Intestinal bacteria -> ammonia (toxic) ->
liver uses it to make amino acids
41
Protein metabolism
Amino acids: C, H, O plus amine group
with N
42
Protein metabolism
Amino acids are broken down into:
a) ammonia -> urea
b) pyruvate or molecules that are part of
the krebs cycle -> respired for energy, or
converted to fats or glucose
43
Proteins are degraded into amino acids.
Protein turnover is tightly regulated.
First step in protein degradation is the
removal of the nitrogen
Ammonium ion is converted to urea in most
mammals.
Carbon atoms are converted to other major
metabolic intermediates.
Inborn errors in metabolism
44
• Amino acids used for synthesizing proteins
are obtained by degrading other proteins
– Proteins destined for degradation are labeled
with ubiquitin.
– Polyubiquinated proteins are degraded by
proteosomes.
• Amino acids are also a source of nitrogen
for other biomolecules.
45
Excess amino acids cannot be stored.
Surplus amino acids are used for fuel.
Carbon skeleton is converted to
Acetyl–CoA
Acetoacetyl–CoA
Pyruvate
Citric acid cycle intermediate
The amino group nitrogen is converted to urea
and excreted.
Glucose, fatty acids and ketone bodies can
46
be formed from amino acids.
1. Protein Degradation
proteins are a vital source of amino acids.
Discarded cellular proteins are another
source of amino acids.
47
Biotechnology
48
What Is Biotechnology?
• Using scientific methods with organisms to
produce new products or new forms of
organisms
• Any technique that uses living organisms or
substances from those organisms to make
or modify a product, to improve plants or
animals, or to develop microorganisms for
specific uses
49
What Is Biotechnology?
• GMO- genetically modified organisms.
• GEO- genetically enhanced organisms.
• With both, the natural genetic material of the
organism has been altered.
• Roots in bread making, wine brewing,
cheese and yogurt fermentation, and
classical plant and animal breeding
50
What Is Biotechnology?
• Manipulation of genes is called genetic
engineering or recombinant DNA technology
• Genetic engineering involves taking one or
more genes from a location in one organism
and either
– Transferring them to another organism
– Putting them back into the original organism in
different combinations
51
What is the career outlook in biotechnology?
• Biotech in 1998
– 1,300 companies in the US
– 2/3 have less than 135 employees
– 140,000 jobs
• Jobs will continue to increase exponentially
• Jobs are available to high school graduates
through PhD’s
52
What Subjects Are Involved With Biotechnology?
• Multidisciplinary- involving a number of
disciplines that are coordinated for a desired
outcome
• Science
– Life sciences
– Physical sciences
– Social sciences
53
What Subjects Are Involved With Biotechnology?
• Mathematics
• Applied sciences
– Computer applications
– Engineering
– Agriculture
54
What Are the Stages of Biotechnology Development
• Ancient biotechnology- early history as
related to food and shelter; Includes
domestication
• Classical biotechnology- built on ancient
biotechnology; Fermentation promoted food
production, and medicine
• Modern biotechnology- manipulates genetic
information in organism; Genetic engineering
55
What Are the Areas of Biotechnology?
• Organismic biotechnology- uses intact
organisms; Does not alter genetic material
• Molecular biotechnology- alters genetic
makeup to achieve specific goals
– Transgenic organism- an organism with
artificially altered genetic material
56
What Are the Benefits of Biotechnology?
• Medicine
– Human
– Veterinary
– Biopharming
•
•
•
•
Environment
Agriculture
Food products
Industry and manufacturing
57
What Is Molecular Biology?
• Molecular biology- study of molecules in
cells
• Metabolism- processes by which organisms
use nutrients
• Anabolism- building tissues from smaller
materials
• Catabolism- breaking down materials into
smaller components
58
What Is a Cell?
• Cell- a discrete unit of
life
• Unicellular organismorganism of one cell
• Multicellular organismorganism of many cells
• Prokaryote- cells that
lack specific nucleus
• Eukaryote- cells with
well-defined nucleus
59
What Is a Cell?
• Cells are building blocks:
– Tissue- collection of cells with specific functions
– Organs- collections of tissues with specific
functions
– Organ systems- collections of organs with
specific functions
60
What Are the Structures in Molecular Genetics?
• Molecular genetics- study of genes and how
they are expressed
• Chromosome- part of cell nucleus that
contains heredity information and promotes
protein synthesis
• Gene- basic unit of heredity on a
chromosome
• DNA- molecule in a chromosome that codes
genetic information
61
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
62
What Is Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)?
• Transcription- process of RNA production
by DNA
• DNA-thread-like molecule which decodes
DNA information
63
What Is Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)?
• Kinds of RNA:
– mRNA- RNA molecules that carry information that
specifies amino acid sequence of a protein molecule
during translation
– rRNA- RNA molecules that form the ribosomal
subunits; Mediate the translation of mRNA into
proteins
– tRNA- molecules that decode sequence information in
and mRNA
– snRNA- very short RNA that interconnects with to
promote formation of mRNA
64
What Are Genetic Engineering
Organisms?
• Genetic engineering- artificially changing
the genetic information in the cells of
organisms
• Transgenic- an organism that has been
genetically modified
• GMO- a genetically modified organism
• GEO- a genetically enhanced organism
65
How Can Genetically Engineered
Plants Be Used?
•
•
•
•
•
Agriculture
Horticulture
Forestry
Environment
Food Quality
66
How Do We Create Transgenic
Organisms?
•
•
•
•
Donor cell- cell that provides DNA
Recipient cell- cell that receives DNA
Protocol- procedure for a scientific process
Three methods used in gene transfer
– Agrobacterium gene transfer- plasmid
– Ballistic gene transfer- gene gun
– Direct gene transfer- enzymes
67
How Does Agrobacterium Gene
Transfer Work?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Extract DNA from donor
Cut DNA into fragments
Sort DNA fragments
Recombine DNA
fragments
5. Transfer plasmids with
bonded DNA
6. Grow transformed
(recipient) cells
68
What Are Methods of Classical
Biotechnology?
• Plant breeding- improvement of plants
by breeding selected individuals to
achieve desired goals
• Cultivar- a cultivated crop variety
69
What Are Methods of Classical
Biotechnology?
• Plant breeding methods;
– Line breeding- breeding successive generations
of plants among themselves
– Crossbreeding- breeding plants of different
varieties or species
– Hybridization- breeding individuals from two
distinctly different varieties
• Selection
70
Why Are Plants Genetically
Engineered?
•
•
•
•
•
Resist pests
Resist herbicides
Improved product quality
Pharmaceuticals
Industrial products
71
These definitions imply biotechnology
is needed because:
•Nature has a rich source of variation
• Here we see bean has many
seedcoat colors and patterns
in nature
But we know nature does not have
all of the traits we need
72
What controls this natural variation?
Allelic differences at genes control a specific trait
Definitions are needed for this statement:
Gene - a piece of DNA that controls the
expression of a trait
Allele - the alternate forms of a gene
73
What is the difference between
genes and alleles for Mendel’s Traits?
Mendel’s Genes
Plant height
Seed shape
Smooth Wrinkled
Allele
Tall
Short
Allele
74
Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics
(The guiding principle that controls trait expression)
Seed shape
75
Plant height
In General, Plant Biotechnology Techniques
Fall Into Two Classes
Gene Manipulation
• Identify a gene from another species which controls
a trait of interest
• Or modify an existing gene (create a new allele)
Gene Introduction
• Introduces that gene into an organism
• Technique called transformation
• Forms transgenic organisms
76
Gene Manipulation Starts
At the DNA Level
The nucleus
contains DNA
Source: Access Excellence
77
DNA Is Packaged
Double-stranded
DNA
is condensed
into
Chromosomes
Source: Access Excellence
78
PCR Animation
Denaturation: DNA melts
Annealing: Primers bind
Extension: DNA is replicated
79
Complementary Genetics
(cont.)
4. Gene fragment used to screen library
Clones transferred
to filter
Human clone
library
PCR fragment
probe added to filter
Hot-spots are human gene
of interest
80
Map-based Cloning
1. Use genetic techniques to
find marker near gene
2. Find cosegregating marker
3. Discover overlapping clones
(or contig) that contains the marker
4. Find ORFs on contig
Gene Marker
Gene/Marker
Gene/Marker
Gene/Marker
5. Prove one ORF is the gene by
Mutant + ORF = Wild type?
transformation or mutant analysis Yes? ORF = Gene
81
Gene Manipulation
• It is now routine to isolate genes
• But the target gene must be carefully chosen
• Target gene is chosen based on desired phenotype
Function:
Glyphosate (RoundUp) resistance
EPSP synthase enzyme
Increased Vitamin A content
Vitamin A biosynthetic pathway enzymes
82
The RoundUp Ready Story
• Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide
• Active ingredient in RoundUp herbicide
• Kills all plants it come in contact with
• Inhibits a key enzyme (EPSP synthase) in an amino acid pathway
• Plants die because they lack the key amino acids
• A resistant EPSP synthase gene allows crops
to survive spraying
83
RoundUp Sensitive Plants
Shikimic acid + Phosphoenol pyruvate
+ Glyphosate
Plant
EPSP synthase
X
3-Enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-5-phosphate
(EPSP)
Without amino acids,
plant dies
X
X
Aromatic
amino acids
X
84
RoundUp Resistant Plants
Shikimic acid + Phosphoenol pyruvate
+ Glyphosate
Bacterial
EPSP synthase
RoundUp has no effect;
enzyme is resistant to herbicide
3-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-5-phosphate
(EPSP)
With amino acids,
plant lives
Aromatic
amino acids
85
The Golden Rice Story
• Vitamin A deficiency is a major health problem
• Causes blindness
• Influences severity of diarrhea, measles
• >100 million children suffer from the problem
• For many countries, the infrastructure doesn’t exist
to deliver vitamin pills
• Improved vitamin A content in widely consumed crops
an attractive alternative
86
-Carotene Pathway in Plants
IPP
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate
Phytoene synthase
Phytoene
Problem:
Rice lacks
these enzymes
Phytoene desaturase
ξ-carotene desaturase
Lycopene
Lycopene-beta-cyclase
Normal
Vitamin A
“Deficient”
Rice
 -carotene
(vitamin A precursor)
87
The Golden Rice Solution
-Carotene Pathway Genes Added
IPP
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate
Phytoene synthase
Daffodil gene
Phytoene
Vitamin A
Pathway
is complete
and functional
Phytoene desaturase
Single bacterial gene;
performs both functions
ξ-carotene desaturase
Lycopene
Daffodil gene
Golden
Rice
Lycopene-beta-cyclase
 -carotene
(vitamin A precursor)
88
Metabolic Pathways are Complex
and Interrelated
Understanding pathways
is critical to developing
new products
89
Modifying Pathway Components
Can Produce New Products
Turn On Vitamin Genes =
Relieve Deficiency
Modified Lipids =
New Industrial Oils
Increase amino acids =
Improved Nutrition
90
Trait/Gene Examples
Gene
Trait
RoundUp Ready
Bacterial EPSP
Golden Rice
Complete Pathway
Plant Virus Resistance
Viral Coat Protein
Male Sterility
Barnase
Plant Bacterial Resistance
p35
Salt tolerance
AtNHX1
91
Introducing the Gene or
Developing Transgenics
Steps
1. Create transformation cassette
2. Introduce and select for transformants
92
Transformation Cassettes
Contains
1. Gene of interest
• The coding region and its controlling elements
2. Selectable marker
• Distinguishes transformed/untransformed plants
3. Insertion sequences
• Aids Agrobacterium insertion
93
Gene of Interest
Promoter
TP
Coding Region
Promoter Region
• Controls when, where and how much the gene is expressed
ex.: CaMV35S (constitutive; on always)
Glutelin 1 (only in rice endosperm during seed development)
Transit Peptide
• Targets protein to correct organelle
ex.: RbCS (RUBISCO small subunit; choloroplast target
Coding Region
• Encodes protein product
ex.: EPSP
-carotene genes
94
Selectable Marker
Promoter
Coding Region
Promoter Region
• Normally constitutive
ex.: CaMV35s (Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S RNA promoter
Coding Region
• Gene that breaks down a toxic compound;
non-transgenic plants die
ex.: nptII [kanamycin (bacterial antibiotic) resistance]
aphIV [hygromycin (bacterial antibiotic) resistance]
Bar [glufosinate (herbicide) resistance]
95
Effect of Selectable Marker
Non-transgenic = Lacks Kan or Bar Gene
Plant dies in presence
of selective compound
X
Transgenic = Has Kan or Bar Gene
Plant grows in presence
of selective compound
96
Insertion Sequences
TL
TR
Required for proper gene insertions
• Used for Agrobacterium-transformation
ex.: Right and Left borders of T-DNA
97
Let’s Build A Complex Cassette
pB19hpc (Golden Rice Cassette)
TL
aphIV
35S Gt1
psy
35S rbcS
crtl
TR
T-DNA
Border
Hygromycin
Resistance
Phytoene
Synthase
Phytoene
Desaturase
T-DNA
Border
Insertion
Sequence
Selectable
Marker
Gene of
Interest
Gene of
Interest
Insertion
Sequence
98
Delivering the Gene
to the Plant
• Transformation cassettes are developed in the lab
• They are then introduced into a plant
• Two major delivery methods
• Agrobacterium
• Gene Gun
Tissue culture
required to generate
transgenic plants
99
Plant Tissue Culture
A Requirement for Transgenic Development
Callus
grows
A plant part
Is cultured
Shoots
develop
Shoots are rooted;
plant grows to maturity
100
But Nature’s Agrobacterium
Has Problems
Infected tissues cannot be regenerated (via tissue culture)
into new plants
Why?
• Phytohormone balance incorrect regeneration
Solution? Transferred DNA (T-DNA) modified by
• Removing phytohormone genes
• Retaining essential transfer sequences
• Adding cloning site for gene of interest
101
The Gene Gun
• DNA vector is coated onto gold or tungsten particles
• Particles are accelerated at high speeds by the gun
• Particles enter plant tissue
• DNA enters the nucleus and
incorporates into chromosome
• Integration process unknown
102
Transformation Steps
Prepare tissue for transformation
• Tissue must be capable of developing into normal plants
• Leaf, germinating seed, immature embryos
Introduce DNA
• Agrobacterium or gene gun
Culture plant tissue
• Develop shoots
• Root the shoots
Field test the plants
• Multiple sites, multiple years
103
The Lab Steps
104
Lab Testing The Transgenics
Insect Resistance
Cold Tolerance
Transgene=
Bt-toxin protein
Transgene=
CBF transcription factors
105
Traditional plant breeding
DNA is a strand of genes,
much like a strand of
pearls. Traditional plant
breeding combines many
genes at once.
Traditional donor
Commercial variety
New variety
(many genes are transferred)
=
X
(crosses)
Desired Gene
Desired gene
Plant biotechnology
Using plant biotechnology,
a single gene may be
added to the strand.
Desired gene
Commercial variety New variety
(only desired gene is transferred)
=
(transfers)
Desired gene
106
What is plant biotechnology?
Benefits of biotechnology
More food
Better food
Better for the environment
107
What Is Cloning?
• Clone- new organism that has been
produced asexually from a single
parent
• Genotype is identical to parent
• Cells or tissues are cultured
108
What Is Bioremediation?
• Bioremediation- using biological
processes to solve environmental
problems
• Biodegradation- natural processes
of microbes in breaking down
hydrocarbon materials
• Biodegradable- capable of being
decomposed by microbes
109
How Can Bioremediation Be
Used?
•
•
•
•
Oil spills
Wastewater treatment
Heavy metal removal
Chemical degradation
110
What Is Phytoremediation?
• Phytoremediation- process of
plants being used to solve pollution
problems
– Plants absorb and break down
pollutants
– Used with heavy metals, pesticides,
explosives, and leachate
111
References
• http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/
mb2/part1/22-aanit.ppt
• http://www.chem.uwec.edu/Chem454/amino1.ppt
• http://ps2009.stainedscrubs.com/genfiles/01%20SB
%20Courseworks/Biochem_WS_IV.ppt
• http://science.kennesaw.edu/~jpowers/aminoacid1.p
pt
• http://academics.vmi.edu/biochem/Chapter_17.ppt
• http://newark.rutgers.edu/~jimms/P13.ppt
112
Referance
• http://sunny.crk.umn.edu/courses/PIM/1030/Cha
pter%207%20Photosynthesis,Respiration,and..ppt
• http://sunny.crk.umn.edu/courses/PIM/1030/Cha
pter%207%20Photosynthesis,Respiration,and..ppt
• http://www.geneontology.org/minutes/20040822
_Stanford_Content/metabolism_postmeeting.ppt
113
references
• www.stcsc.edu/anatomy/210/Chapter%202
%20part%202.ppt
• http://www.lander.edu/skuhl/Classes/BIOL%
20421/256,1,MICROBIAL METABOLISM
• http://newark.rutgers.edu/~jimms/P13.ppt
• ww.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/lehre/teaching/2005SS/BioNLP/CoreferenceAndClassification.p
pt
114
References
• http://www.newman.edu.hk/ecampus/wk/bio
web/ALBio/AlCh22/AlCh22a.ppt
• http://www.nwosu.edu/science/Biology/Gen
Botany1125/GBPowerPoint/Waterwopic.ppt
• http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/biologi
cal%20anamations.html
• http://www.coe.unt.edu/ubms/documents/cla
ssnotes/Spring2006/256,1,Transport in
Plants
115
References
• http://docushare.harford.edu/dsweb/Get/Do
cument-156422/Cell%20Lab.ppt
• http://www.biosci.ohiostate.edu/pcmb/osu_pcmb/courses/pb300_fi
les/lamb_wi06/plant_cells_2(9jan06).ppt
116
References
• http://iaffa.bizland.com/sitebuildercontent/sit
ebuilderfiles/biotechintro.ppt
• http://www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/biotech/pres
entations/techniques-of-biotechnologymcclean-good.ppt
117