Download 1. What is natural resource economics & why is it important?

1.
Introduction to Ethical Issues in
Agriculture & the Environment
SPRING 2002
Larry D. Sanders
Dept. of Ag Economics
Oklahoma State University
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INTRODUCTION
 Purpose:
to become aware of the ethical issues in
agriculture and the environment
 Learning Objectives:
1. Explain the fundamentals of ethics & relation to environmental &
agricultural issues.
2. Review concepts & jargon in theory of ethics.
 References
– Van DeVeer & Pierce; Thomas, Matthews & van Ravenswaay;
Coufal & Spuches
– The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/environm.htm)
– Rolston, H. Environmental Ethics, Temple University Press, 1988.
– Hackett, S., Environmental & Natural Resources Economics, M. E.
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Sharpe, 1998.
Whether or not we are aware of it or can
express it, “ethics” seem to matter. . . .
“That there ought to be some
ethic concerning the
environment can be doubted
only by those who believe in no
ethics at all. For humans are
evidently helped or hurt by the
condition of their
environment.”
--Holmes Rolston, 1988
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Empirical vs. Moral/Ethical Claims:
Can you see a difference?
Empirical Claims
1. Rape is occurring somewhere
now.
2. Child abuse is absent in the
Dominican Republic.
3. Thousands of people have died
in Rwanda.
4. Lying is often motivated by the
desire to avoid shame.
5. There are now over 6 billion
people on planet Earth.
Moral/Ethical Claims
1. Rape is wrong.
2. Child abuse is contrary to
one’s duty.
3. We should not let people
starve to death.
4. It is sometimes alright to lie.
5. Human life is very valuable.
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Empirical vs. Moral/Ethical Questions:
Can you see a difference?
Empirical Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the economics of
animal production?
How do we measure the
severity of ozone depletion
and its subsequent impacts?
What is the earth’s carrying
capacity given some
economic goals?
How do we improve food
production/distribution and
access by low income
people?
Moral/Ethical Questions
1. How ought we to treat
animals?
2. What should we do about
the holes in the ozone
layer (& subsequent
global warming)?
3. What should we do to
slow population growth?
4. What should we do about
world hunger?
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Ethics vs. Morals:
 Ethics:
– Planned attempt to follow societal norms, standards,
and expectations
– Seeks to define what is right & what is wrong on a
universal basis.
 Morals:
– Reflect the dominant belief of a particular culture or
institution about what is right or wrong.
--R. Cahn, 1988 (taken from Coufal & Spuches)
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Ethics vs. Morals:
 ethics:
the branch of philosophy that investigates
and creates theories about the nature of right and
wrong, duty, obligation, freedom, virtue, and other
issues where sentient beings can be harmed or
helped. Sometimes contrasts with morality.”
(G. Pence)
 morality: what in fact people believe to be right
and wrong, or how they in fact act; sometimes
contrasts with ethics (the study of how they
should act). (G. Pence)
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Morals vs. Ethics:
“Doing” vs. “Thinking”
Morality often refers
to actual moral choice
and conduct (doing)
and to those
considerations such as
moral values and
commitments which
directly shape them.
Ethics . . . is often used
to refer to the
secondary activity of
reflecting on
(thinking), justifying,
and criticizing such
conduct &
considerations.
Camenisch, 1986, taken from Coufal & Spuches
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Are there “moral imperatives” that transcend
cultures & institutions to become “ethical codes?”
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
You should not kill?
You should not steal?
Incest is wrong?
Life begins at the point of conception?
You should always tell the truth?
Farmers are the best stewards of the land?
Only humans have rights?
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Ethics act as constraint on social conduct
“An ethic, ecologically, is a limitation on
freedom of action in the struggle for existence.
“An ethic, philosophically, is a differentiation of
social from anti-social conduct.
“All ethics so far evolved rest upon a single
premise: that the individual is a member of a
community of independent parts.”
“The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries
of the community to include soils, waters, plants,
and animals, or collectively.”
A. Leopold, 1948; taken from Coufal & Spuches.
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Ethics Govern:
 Human
Conduct
 Values
 Activity
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Ethics: Some Fundamentals
 Ethics--branch
of philosophy concerned w/moral
duty & ideal human character
 Intrinsic rightness (Deontological Ethics)
–
–
–
–
what’s desirable (hypothetical imperative)
what’s necessary (categorical imperative)
Rawls “Justice” (fairness concept)
Leopold & “Deep Ecology”
 Instrumental
value (Teleological Ethics)
– end justifies means if desirable consequences result
(consequentialism)
– Natural Law & Utilitarianism
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Ethics: Some Fundamentals (cont)
 Logical
fallacy to believe that sciences of “what
is” can be applied to “what ought”
 Environmental & Agricultural Ethics--examines
the moral basis of environmental responsibility;
3 competing theories
1. Anthropocentrism
2. Species rights
3. Ecocentrism
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How does ethics work & why does ethics
matter? Influences on Decision Making . . .
Culture
Individual
Experience
Ethics
Worldview
Economics
Science
Decisions
Technology
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Culture as an influence on
decision making . . .
family
Culture
Individual
Experience
Politics & policy
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Worldview, filtered through key factors, as
an influence on decision making . . .
facts
Worldview
Ethics (“universal”
moral responsibility)
Economics (means
& motives)
Science (knowledge)
goals
Technology (means)
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Decisions--the moral/ethical problemsolving or decision making process:
1. Identify a normative or moral
assertion (i.e., “I believe in the
death penalty”).
2. Support with reasons
(empirical facts, moral facts &
beliefs).
3. Reflect on reasons
(evaluate).
4. Weigh reasons using some
ethical standard (i.e., intrinsic
rightness or instrumental value).
5. Choose or make decision
(act).
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Decisions--Empirical problem-solving or decision
making process (aka “scientific method”):
1.State a testable
hypothesis or problem.
2.Collect all relevant facts.
3.Determine relevant
alternative solutions.
4.Evaluate the likely
consequences.
5.Choose or make
decision.
6.Assess feedback.
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The “Logical Fallacy” of attempting to use the
scientific method to go from “is” to “ought” :
Empirical:
1.State a testable
hypothesis or problem.
2.Collect all relevant
facts.
3.Determine relevant
alternative solutions.
4.Evaluate the likely
consequences.
5.Choose or make
decision.
6.Assess feedback.
Moral/Ethical:
1.Identify a normative or moral
assertion (i.e., “I believe in the
death penalty”).
2.Support with reasons (empirical
facts, moral facts & beliefs).
3.Reflect on reasons (evaluate).
4.Weigh reasons using some
ethical standard (i.e., intrinsic
rightness or instrumental
value).
5.Choose or make decision (act).
Conclusion: the scientific method doesn’t
work with the moral/ethical claim/question.
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What are Agricultural &
Environmental Ethics?
 Attempts
to describe the way one perceives,
reflects on, acts on, & treats the world;
 The framework of attitudes & values
individuals/societies have regarding agriculture &
the environment;
 A system of moral responsibility between humans
& their agricultural systems & environment(s);
 Values embodied & upheld by codes of ethics of
natural resources professions.
Coufal & Spuches, as modified by Sanders
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What are Agricultural &
Environmental Ethics (continued)?
 The
extension of general (human) ethics to
the interactions of people with their
agricultural system & the environment; a
comprehensive, coherent set of principles,
duties, obligations, and responsibilities
guiding human behavior toward or to the
agricultural system and natural environment.
Coufal & Spuches, as modified by Sanders
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Ethics For or Of the Environment?
A
Management (Instrumental) Ethic:
– An ethic for the use of the environment or
agricultural system leads to duties regarding
the environment
A
Loving (Intrinsic) Ethic:
– An ethic of the environment itself leads to duties
to the environment.
Regan 1981, adapted from Coufal & Spuches by Sanders
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Code of Ethics Example:

Ecological Society of America
– General Canon 1: All members “will use their
knowledge, skills, and training to find ways to
harmonize society’s needs, demands, and actions
with the maintenance and enhancement of natural
and managed ecosystems.”
ESA 1993, from Coufal & Spuches
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Ethics & Morality?
Ethics is a branch of
philosophy that is
concerned with moral
duty and ideal human
character.
--Steven C. Hackett,
1998
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Some “agriculturally and
environmentally ethical” claims…
1. As long as more people are better
off, development should proceed.
2. Humans should be responsible for
the welfare of animals.
3. Animals have a right to a quality
of life and protection.
4. Land owners should be free to do
what they want on or with the land.
5. The world was made for man and
man was made to rule & conquer
earth.
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Alternative Methods of Economics Relate
to Inclusion or Exclusion of Ethics
 Positive
Economics
– evaluates “what is” (the
observable)
» the scientific method
– objectivity is key
 Normative
Economics
– determines/suggests “what
ought” to be done
» based on the norms/standards
of society/culture
– bias is assumed/explained in the
process
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The Key Fundamental Questions of
Economics
1.“What” goods/services are produced?
2.“How” are goods/services produced?
3.“Who” gets benefits & costs?
NOTE: Often not discussed are related &
important ethical questions such as:
--Who decides?
--Who/what/how to represent the voices of those
who don’t have a voice?
--What’s fair & to whom?
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Sampling of Agricultural/Environmental
Controversial Issues with Ethical Dimensions
1. Animal rights/welfare
2. Intrinsic value of nature
3. Trade issues
4. Bio-engineering
5. Development & cultural destruction
6. Population control
7. Endangered species
8. Business practices
9. Biodiversity
10.Property rights
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Utilitarian Principles & Economics
 Benefit
Cost Analysis
– preferred policy or choice: B > C & Net Benefits are
greatest
 Pareto
Efficiency Criterion
– policy can’t reduce the welfare of others
 Pareto
Superior
– winners must compensate losers
 Kaldor-Hicks
Criterion
– winners must have potential to compensate losers
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Efficiency of Market System
 Market
efficiency:
Qd = Qs
MB = MC
Net Benefits maximized for private market
 Social Benefits maximized if
MBp = MBs = MCp = MCs
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Market Equilibrium
S=MCp=MWTSp
Price
P1
D=MBp=MVp=MWTPp
Quantity
Q1
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Market Failure--Costs
Price
S’=MCs
S=MCp
P2
D=MBp=MVp=MWTPp=MBs
Quantity
P1
Q2 Q1
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Market Failure--Benefits
S=MCp=MCs
Price
P2
D’=MBs
P1
D=MBp
Quantity
Q1
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Market Failure
 Inefficient
allocation of resources
 MBp = MCp
 MBs = MCs
 Sources
–
–
–
–
Imperfect Competition (market power)
Imperfect Information
Public Goods--property rights not assigned
Externalities--costs/benefits that don’t accrue to
economic unit that creates them
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Market Efficiency Issues
 Equity
– Efficiency may not be Equitable
» Distribution may be a problem
» “Best” is determined by Society
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