Download boss1_ppt_ch_09

ETHICS & MORAL
DECISION-MAKING
The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn to
identify and employ ethical approaches to
morality and reasoning.
Moral and ethical reasoning
2
Perhaps in no other area are people so prone to engage in
rhetoric and resistance as in debates over controversial
moral issues. Skills in critical thinking can help us to
evaluate moral issues from multiple perspectives as well
as break through patterns of resistance.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
What is moral reasoning?
3
We engage in moral reasoning when we make a decision
about what we ought or ought not to do, or about what is
the most reasonable or just position or policy regarding a
particular issue. Effective moral decision-making depends
on good critical-thinking skills, familiarity with basic moral
values, and the motivating force of moral sentiments.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Moral values and happiness
4

The association of morality with happiness and a sense
of well-being is found in moral philosophies throughout
the world. Studies support the claim that people who put
moral values above nonmoral concerns are happier and
more self-fulfilled.

Moral values are those that benefit yourself and others
and are worthwhile for their own sake. They include
altruism, compassion, tolerance, forgiveness, and
justice.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Nonmoral, or instrumental, values
5

Nonmoral values are goal-oriented. They are a means
to an end we wish to achieve. Nonmoral values include
independence, prestige, fame, popularity, and wealth.

Although many Americans regard nonmoral values such
as career success, financial prosperity, and flashy
materialism as the means to happiness, there is in fact
little correlation between prosperity and happiness,
except at the very lowest levels of income.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Moral tragedy
6

When we fail to take appropriate moral action or make a
decision we later regret, we commit what is called a
moral tragedy.

These failures can be avoided through development of
critical thinking skills that enhance our moral reasoning.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conscience
7

A well-developed conscience provides us with
knowledge about what is right and wrong. Like
language, whose basic structure is innate, our
conscience is nurtured/neglected, and shaped by our
family, religion, and culture. Conscience has an affective
(emotional) element that motivates us to act on this
knowledge of right and wrong.

Effective moral reasoning involves listening to the
affective side of our conscience, as well as the
cognitive/reasoning side.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Moral sentiments
8

Moral sentiments are emotions that alert us to moral
situations and motivate us to do what is right. They
include, among others, “helper’s high,” empathy and
sympathy, compassion, moral outrage, resentment, and
guilt.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
“Helper’s high”; empathy and
sympathy; and compassion
9

“Helper’s high” occurs when you experience an
endorphin rush after helping others. It aids in promoting
relaxation, and enhances self-esteem.

Empathy or sympathy is the capacity for and inclination
to imagine the feelings of others.

Compassion is sympathy in action, and involves taking
steps to relieve others’ unhappiness.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Moral outrage, resentment, and guilt
10

Moral outrage, also known as moral indignation, occurs
when we witness an injustice or violation of moral
decency. Moral outrage motivates us to correct unjust
situations through demands for justice.

Resentment, a type of moral outrage, occurs when we
ourselves are treated unjustly.

Guilt both alerts us to and motivates us to correct a
wrong.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Guilt and shame
11

Guilt is often broadly defined to include shame.
However, the two are different. Guilt results when we
commit a moral wrong or violate a moral principle.
Shame, on the other hand, occurs as a result of the
violation of a social norm, or as a result of failure to live
up to other’s expectations.

As good critical thinkers, we must learn to distinguish
between the two, and employ other skills such as good
listening and problem-solving to assist in moral
decision-making.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Development of moral reasoning
12


Psychologists such as Harvard scholar Lawrence
Kohlberg (1927-1987) argue that human beings
advance through distinct stages in their moral reasoning
development. These stages are transcultural and
represent increased proficiency in critical thinking skills.
Research has identified three levels of moral
development:




Preconventional
Conventional
Post-conventional
These levels each contain two distinct stages.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Preconventional moral development
13

In the first two stages of moral development, or the
preconventional level, morality is defined egotistically
in terms of oneself. People at this level expect others to
treat them morally, but generally do not reciprocate
unless they derive benefit. Most people outgrow these
two stages of moral reasoning by high school.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conventional moral development
14
In the next two stages of moral development, or the
conventional level, people look to others for moral
guidance and self-affirmation. People at Stage 1 conform
to peer group norms, and believe there are right and wrong
answers and that those in authority know the right
answers. Most college freshmen are at this stage. By
substituting wider norms and laws for peer group culture, a
process known as cultural relativism, people move to the
second conventional stage. Most Americans are at this
stage of moral development, which involves adopting
prevailing views rather than thinking through moral
decisions.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Postconventional moral development
15

In the final two stages, or postconventional level, of
moral development, people recognize that social
conventions need to be justified. Moral decisions should
be based on universal moral principles and on concerns
such as justice, compassion, and mutual respect, rather
than popularity and legality.

Unfortunately, less than 10 percent of American adults
ever reach the postconventional level of moral
reasoning.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Moral reasoning in women
16



Psychologist Carol Gilligan argued that women’s moral
development proceeds differently from men. Men, she
said, tend to be duty- and principle-oriented, an
approach she called the “justice perspective.”
Women, in contrast, are more context-oriented and view
the world in terms of relationships and caring, called the
“care perspective.”
Research has reached no consensus on Gilligan’s
claims.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Moral theories
17

Moral theories provide frameworks for understanding
and explaining what makes a certain action right or
wrong. They also help us clarify, critically analyze, and
rank the moral concerns raised by moral issues in our
lives.

Our everyday moral decisions and level of reasoning are
informed by the moral theory we accept as true, even
though we may never have consciously articulated that
theory.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Two types of moral theory
18

There are two basic types of moral theories:


Those that claim morality is relative
Those that claim morality is universal

Moral relativists claim that people create reality and
that there are no universal or shared moral principles
that apply to all.

Moral universalists, on the other hand, maintain that
there are universal moral principles that apply to all.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Morality is relative: ethical subjectivism
and cultural realism
19

According to ethical subjectivists, morality is nothing
more than personal opinion or feelings. What feels right
for you is right for you at any particular moment. Ethical
subjectivism is one of the weakest moral theories.

Cultural relativism, the second form of moral
relativism, looks to public opinion and customs rather
than to private opinion for moral standards. For cultural
relativists, morality is nothing more than socially
approved customs. Cultural relativism, like ethical
relativism, can be used to support discrimination.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Morality is universal
20

Moral universalists maintain that there are universal
moral principles that apply to all. Most philosophers
accept this principle. The following slides examine four
different universal moral theories; utilitarianism
(consequence-based ethics), deontology (duty-based
ethics), rights-based ethics, and virtue ethics.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Morality is universal: utilitarianism
21

In utilitarianism, actions are evaluated based on their
consequences. According to utilitarians, actions that
bring the most happiness to the greatest number of
people reflect the principle of utility, or the greatest
happiness principle. In the nineteenth century, Jeremy
Bentham developed the utilitarian calculus as a means
of determining which actions or policies are morally
preferable.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Utilitarian calculus
22

According to the utilitarian calculus, there are seven
factors to take into consideration in determining the
most moral action or decision:







Intensity: strength of the pleasure/pain
Duration: length of time the pleasure/pain lasts
Certainty: level of probability the pleasure/pain occurs
Propinquity: how soon the pleasure/pain will occur
Fecundity: extent to which pleasure will produce more pleasure
Purity: the pleasure does not cause concurrent pain
Extent: the number of sentient beings affected by action
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Morality is universal: deontology
(duty-based ethics)
23

Deontology claims that duty is the foundation of
morality. Some acts are morally obligatory regardless of
their consequences. Moral principles or duties apply to
everyone regardless of a person’s feelings or culture.
A famous example of this is the Golden Rule, or the
principle of reciprocity, which exists in every major world
religion and ethical value system.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The categorical imperative
24

German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
devised the categorical imperative, which states:


“Act only on that maxim by which you can at the same time will
that it should become a universal law.”
Scottish philosopher W.D. Ross (1877-1971) came up
with a list of seven duties derived from the categorical
imperative. Ross argued these duties are prima facie
(latin for “at first view”), that is they are morally binding
unless overridden by a more compelling moral duty.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Seven prima facie duties
25

There are three types of prima facie duties; futurelooking duties, duties based on past obligations, and
ongoing duties.

Future-looking duties:


Beneficence: The duty to do good acts and promote happiness
Nonmaleficence: The duty to do no harm and prevent harm
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Duties based on past obligations
26

Duties based on past obligations:



Fidelity/loyalty: Duties arising from past commitments and
promises.
Reparation: Duties that stem from past harm to others
Gratitude: Duties based on past favors and unearned services
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Ongoing duties
27

Ongoing duties:


Self-improvement: The duty to improve our knowledge
(wisdom) and virtue; this duty is the basis of virtue ethics.
Justice: The duty to treat all people with dignity and to give each
person equal consideration
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Morality is universal:
rights-based ethics
28
In rights-based ethics, moral rights are not identical to
legal rights, as they are in cultural relativism. The right to
pursue our interests without interference from others is
limited to our legitimate interests; that is, those interests
that do not harm other people by violating their similar and
equal interests. Moral rights are generally divided into two
areas: welfare rights and liberty rights.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Welfare rights and liberty rights
29

Welfare rights entail rights to receive certain social
goods, such as education, emergency medical care, and
police/fire protection. They are important, for without
them we cannot pursue our legitimate interests.

Liberty rights entail the right to be left alone to pursue
our legitimate interests. Freedom of speech, freedom of
religion, freedom to choose career paths, the right to
privacy, and the right to own property are all liberty
rights.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Morality is universal: virtue ethics
30

Virtue ethics emphasizes character over right actions. A
virtue is an admirable character trait or disposition to
habitually act in a manner that benefits ourselves and
others. Compassion, courage, generosity, loyalty, and
honesty are all examples of virtues. Virtue ethics goes
hand in hand with other universal moral theories.

Being virtuous entails cultivating moral sensitivity. Moral
sensitivity is the awareness of how our actions affect
others and involves good communication skills and the
ability to empathize.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Moral arguments
31

Moral theories provide the foundation for moral
arguments and their application to real-life situations.

In making a moral argument, the point is not to prove
that you are morally superior to others, but come to a
conclusion that leads to an action or policy that is
reasonable and most consistent with moral values.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Moral dilemmas
32
Moral dilemmas are situations where there is a conflict
between moral values. Solutions to moral dilemmas are
not right or wrong, only better or worse. Ideally, the best
resolution to a moral dilemma is the one that honors
as many moral values as possible.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Resolving moral dilemmas
33

When evaluating and resolving moral dilemmas, you
should follow several steps.





Describe the facts.
List relevant moral principles and concerns.
List and evaluate possible courses of action.
Devise a plan of action.
Carry out the plan of action.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conclusions
34
Being able to recognize moral arguments and developing
skills to evaluate moral reasoning are important factors in
critical thinking. There is a positive correlation between
level of moral reasoning and critical thinking ability.
Effective critical thinking requires not only that we be
aware of our own moral values, but also that we be openminded and willing to respect the concerns and values of
others.
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.