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Crusade
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Crusade series
First Crusade
People's Crusade
German Crusade, 1096
Crusade of 1101
Second Crusade
Third Crusade
Fourth Crusade
Albigensian Crusade
Children's Crusade
Fifth Crusade
Sixth Crusade
Seventh Crusade
Shepherds' Crusade
Eighth Crusade
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Ninth Crusade
Northern Crusades
This article is about the medieval crusades. For
other uses, see Crusade (disambiguation).
The Crusades were a series of several military campaigns—usually sanctioned by the
Papacy—that took place during the 11th through 13th centuries. Originally, they were
Roman Catholic Holy Wars to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the
Muslims, but some were directed against other Europeans, such as the Fourth Crusade
against Constantinople, the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars of southern
France and the Northern Crusades.
Beyond the medieval military events, the word "crusade" has evolved to have
multiple meanings and connotations. For additional meanings see usage of the term
"crusade" below and/or the dictionary definition.
Contents
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1 Historical background
2 Historical context
3 The major crusades
o 3.1 First Crusade
o 3.2 Second Crusade
o 3.3 Third Crusade
o 3.4 Fourth Crusade
o 3.5 Albigensian Crusade
o 3.6 Children's Crusade
o 3.7 Fifth Crusade
o 3.8 Sixth Crusade
o 3.9 Seventh Crusade
o 3.10 Eighth Crusade
o 3.11 Ninth Crusade
o 3.12 Crusades in Baltic and Central Europe
4 Crusade legacy
o 4.1 Europe
o 4.2 Islamic world
o 4.3 Jewish community
o 4.4 The Caucasus
5 Usage of the term "crusade"
6 Popular reputation
o 6.1 Eastern Orthodoxy
7 See also
8 References and further reading
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9 External links
[edit]
Historical background
The origins of the crusades lie in developments in Western Europe earlier in the
Middle Ages, as well as the deteriorating situation of the Byzantine Empire in the
east. The breakdown of the Carolingian Empire in the later 9th century, combined
with the relative stabilization of local European borders after the Christianization of
the Vikings, Slavs, and Magyars, meant that there was an entire class of warriors who
now had very little to do but fight amongst themselves and terrorize the peasant
population. The Church tried to stem this violence with the Peace and Truce of God
movements, which was somewhat successful, but trained warriors always sought an
outlet for their violence. One later outlet was the Reconquista in Spain and Portugal,
which at times occupied Iberian knights and some mercenaries from elsewhere in
Europe in the fight against the Islamic Moors. In 1063, Pope Alexander II had given
papal blessing to Iberian Christians in their wars against the Muslims, granting both a
papal standard (the vexillum sancti Petri) and an indulgence to those who were killed
in battle. A plea for help from the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus in
opposing Muslim attacks thus fell on ready ears.
The Crusades were in part an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose up in the
late 11th century among the lay public. This was due in part to the Investiture
Controversy, which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First
Crusade. Christendom had been greatly affected by the Investiture Controversy; as
both sides tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally
engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. The result was an awakening of intense
Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs, which would manifest in the
overwhelming popular support for the First Crusade, and the religious vitality of the
12th century.
This background in the Christian West must be matched with that in the Muslim East.
Muslim presence in the Holy Land goes back to the initial Arab conquest of Palestine
in the 7th century. This did not interfere much with pilgrimage to Christian holy sites
or the security of monasteries and Christian communities in the Holy Land of
Christendom, and western Europeans were not much concerned with the loss of faraway Jerusalem when, in the ensuing decades and centuries, they were themselves
faced with invasions by Muslims and other hostile non-Christians such as the Vikings
and Magyars. However, the Muslim armies' successes were putting strong pressure on
the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire.
A turning point in western attitudes towards the east came in the year 1009, when the
Fatimid caliph of Cairo, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, had the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem destroyed. His successor permitted the Byzantine Empire to
rebuild it under stringent circumstances, and pilgrimage was again permitted, but
many stories began to be circulated in the West about the cruelty of Muslims toward
Christian pilgrims; these stories then played an important role in the development of
the crusades later in the century.
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Historical context
It is necessary to look
for the origin of a
crusading ideal in the
struggle between
Christians and
Muslims in Spain and
consider how the idea
of a holy war emerged
from this background.
— Norman F. Cantor
The immediate cause of the First Crusade was Alexius I's
appeal to Pope Urban II for mercenaries to help him resist
Muslim advances into territory of the Byzantine Empire. In
1071, at the Battle of Manzikert, the Byzantine Empire had
been defeated, and this defeat led to the loss of all but the
coastlands of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Although the
East-West Schism was brewing between the Catholic
Western church and the Greek Orthodox Eastern church,
Alexius I expected some help from a fellow Christian.
However, the response was much larger, and less helpful,
than Alexius I desired, as the Pope called for a large invasion
force to not merely defend the Byzantine Empire but also
retake Jerusalem.
Part of the series on
Christianity
History of Christianity
Jesus of Nazareth
The Apostles
Ecumenical councils
Great Schism
The Crusades
Reformation
The Trinity of God
God the Father
Christ the Son
The Holy Spirit
Christian theology
Christian Church
Christian worship
Grace
Salvation
Sermon on the Mount
The Ten Commandments
The Christian Bible
Old Testament
New Testament
Apocrypha
When the First Crusade was preached in 1095, the Christian
Christian denominations
princes of northern Iberia had been fighting their way out of
Catholicism
the mountains of Galicia and Asturias, the Basque Country
Orthodox Christianity
Protestantism
and Navarre, with increasing success, for about a hundred
years. The fall of Moorish Toledo to the Kingdom of León in
Christian movements
1085 was a major victory, but the turning points of the
Reconquista still lay in the future. The disunity of the
Muslim emirs was an essential factor, and the Christians,
whose wives remained safely behind, were hard to beat: they knew nothing except
fighting, they had no gardens or libraries to defend, and they worked their way
forward through alien territory populated by infidels, where the Christian fighters felt
they could afford to wreak havoc. All these factors were soon to be replayed in the
fighting grounds of the East. Spanish historians have traditionally seen the
Reconquista as the molding force in the Castilian character, with its sense that the
highest good was to die fighting for the Christian cause of one's country.
While the Reconquista was the most prominent example of Christian war against
Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example. The Norman adventurer Robert
Guiscard had conquered the "toe of Italy," Calabria, in 1057 and was holding what
had traditionally been Byzantine territory against the Muslims of Sicily. The maritime
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states of Pisa, Genoa and Catalonia were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in
Majorca and Sardinia, freeing the coasts of Italy and Catalonia from Muslim raids.
Much earlier, of course, the Christian homelands of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt,
and so on had been conquered by Muslim armies. This long history of losing
territories to a religious enemy, as well as a powerful pincer movement on all of
Western Europe, created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine emperor Alexius
I's call for holy war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands, starting at
the most important one of all, Jerusalem itself.
The papacy of Pope Gregory VII had struggled with reservations about the doctrinal
validity of a holy war and the shedding of blood for the Lord and had resolved the
question in favour of justified violence. More importantly to the Pope, the Christians
who made pilgrimages to the Holy Land were being persecuted. Actions against
Arians and other heretics offered historical precedents in a society where violence
against unbelievers, and indeed against other Christians, was acceptable and common.
Saint Augustine of Hippo, Gregory's intellectual model, had justified the use of force
in the service of Christ in The City of God, and a Christian "just war" might enhance
the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as Gregory saw
himself. The northerners would be cemented to Rome and their troublesome knights
could see the only kind of action that suited them. Previous attempts by the church to
stem such violence, such as the concept of the "Peace of God", were not as successful
as hoped. To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies might be
unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland). A Latin
hegemony in the Levant would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy's claims of
supremacy over the Patriarch of Constantinople, which had resulted in the Great
Schism of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms.
In the Byzantine homelands the Eastern Emperor's weakness was revealed by the
disastrous defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which reduced the Empire's
Asian territory to a region in western Anatolia and around Constantinople. A sure sign
of Byzantine desperation was the appeal of Alexius I Comnenus to his enemy the
Pope for aid. But Gregory was occupied with the Investiture Controversy and could
not call on the German emperor and the crusade never took shape.
For Gregory's more moderate successor Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to
reunite Christendom, bolster the Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control.
The disaffected Germans and the Normans were not to be counted on, but the heart
and backbone of a crusade could be found in Urban's own homeland among the
northern French.
On a popular level, the first crusades unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt
pious fury that was expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied the
movement of mobs through Europe, as well as the violent treatment of "schismatic"
Orthodox Christians of the east. The violence against the Orthodox Christians
culminated in the sack of Constantinople in 1204, in which most of the Crusading
armies took part. The fact that Western Christians had been mistreated in the past (by
Constantinople) has never justified this sack in the eyes of the Church. Indeed, as
soon as the Pope learned of the sack of Constantinople, all who took part were
immediately excommunicated. In modern times, Pope John Paul II has also
apologized for this massacre.
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The 13th century crusades never expressed such a popular fever, and after Acre fell
for the last time in 1291, and after the extermination of the Occitan Cathars in the
Albigensian Crusade, the crusading ideal became devalued by Papal justifications of
political and territorial aggressions within Catholic Europe.
The last crusading order of knights to hold territory were the Knights Hospitaller.
After the final fall of Acre they took control of the island of Rhodes, and in the
sixteenth century were driven to Malta. These last crusaders were finally unseated by
Napoleon in 1798.
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The major crusades
A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades gives us nine during the 11th to 13th
centuries, as well as other smaller crusades that are mostly contemporaneous and
unnumbered. There were frequent "minor" crusades throughout this period, not only
in Palestine but also in Spain and central Europe, against not only Muslims, but also
Christian heretics and personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful monarchs.
Such "crusades" continued into the 16th century, until the Renaissance and
Reformation when the political and religious climate of Europe was significantly
different than that of the Middle Ages. The following is a listing of the "major"
crusades.
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First Crusade
Full article: First Crusade
After Byzantine emperor Alexius I called for help with defending his empire against
the Seljuk Turks, in 1095 at the Council of Clermont Pope Urban II called upon all
Christians to join a war against the Turks, a war which would count as full penance.
Crusader armies marched to Jerusalem, sacking several cities on their way. In 1099,
they took Jerusalem and massacred the population. As a result of the First Crusade,
several small Crusader states were created, notably the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Following this crusade there was a second, unsuccessful wave of crusaders, the
Crusade of 1101.
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Second Crusade
Full article: Second Crusade
After a period of relative peace, in which Christians and Muslims co-existed in the
Holy Land, Bernard of Clairvaux preached a new crusade when the town of Edessa
was conquered by the Turks. French and German armies under Louis VII of France
and Conrad III of Germany, marched to Asia Minor in 1147, but failed to accomplish
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any major successes, and indeed endangered the survival of the Crusader states with a
foolish attack on Damascus. By 1149, both leaders had returned to their countries
without any result.
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Third Crusade
Full article: Third Crusade
In 1187, Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, recaptured Jerusalem. Pope Gregory VIII called for
a crusade, which was led by several of Europe's most important leaders: Philip II of
France, Richard I of England and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick
drowned in Cilicia in 1190, leaving an unstable alliance between the English and the
French. Philip left in 1191 after the Crusaders had recaptured Acre from the Muslims.
The Crusader army headed down the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. They defeated
the Muslims near Arsuf and were in sight of Jerusalem. However, the inability of the
Crusaders to thrive in the locale due to inadequate food and water resulted in an
empty victory. Richard left the following year after establishing a truce with Saladin.
On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked and he ended up in Austria. In Austria
his enemy Duke Leopold captured him, delivered him to Frederick's son Henry VI
and Richard was held for, literally, a king's ransom. By 1197, Henry felt himself
ready for a Crusade, but he died in the same year of malaria.
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Fourth Crusade
Full article: Fourth Crusade
Jerusalem having fallen back into Muslim hands a decade earlier, the Fourth Crusade
was initiated in 1202 by Pope Innocent III, with the intention of invading the Holy
Land through Egypt. The Venetians, under Doge Enrico Dandolo, gained control of
this crusade and diverted it to, first the Christian city of Zara, then to Constantinople
where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of
misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the city was sacked in 1204.
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Albigensian Crusade
Full article: Albigensian Crusade
The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of
southern France. It was a decades-long struggle that had as much to do with the
concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In
the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.
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Children's Crusade
Full article: Children's Crusade
The Children's Crusade is a possibly fictitious or misinterpreted crusade of 1212. The
story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in
France and Germany, which Pope Innocent III interpreted as a reproof from heaven to
their unworthy elders. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land; they were
all sold as slaves or died of hunger during the journey.
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Fifth Crusade
Full article: Fifth Crusade
By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade
on foot, and the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) formulated a plan for the
recovery of the Holy Land. A crusading force from Hungary, Austria, and Bavaria
achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the
urgent insistence of the papal legate, Pelagius, they proceeded to a foolhardy attack on
Cairo, and an inundation of the Nile compelled them to choose between surrender and
destruction.
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Sixth Crusade
Full article: Sixth Crusade
In 1228, Emperor Frederick II set sail from Brindisi for Syria, though laden with the
papal excommunication. Through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success,
Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem being delivered to the Crusaders for a period of
ten years. This was the first major crusade not initiated by the Papacy, a trend that was
to continue for the rest of the century.
Louis IX attacks Damietta
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Seventh Crusade
Full article: Seventh Crusade
The papal interests represented by the Templars brought on a conflict with Egypt in
1243, and in the following year a Khwarezmian force summoned by the latter stormed
Jerusalem. Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of
Jerusalem in 1187 had done, Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt
from 1248 to 1254, leaving from the newly constructed port of Aigues-Mortes in
southern France. It was a failure and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the
court of the Crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first
Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.
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Eighth Crusade
Full article: Eighth Crusade
The eighth Crusade was organized by Louis IX in 1270, again sailing from AiguesMortes, initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the Crusader states in Syria.
However, the crusade was diverted to Tunis, where Louis spent only two months
before dying.
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Ninth Crusade
Full article: Ninth Crusade
The future Edward I of England undertook another expedition in 1271, after having
accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. He accomplished very little in Syria and
retired the following year after a truce. With the fall of Antioch (1268), Tripoli
(1289), and Acre (1291) the last traces of the Christian rule in Syria disappeared.
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Crusades in Baltic and Central Europe
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The Teutonic knights in Pskov in 1240, screenshot from Sergei Eisenstein's Alexander
Nevsky (1938).
Full article: Northern Crusades
The Crusades in the Baltic Sea area and in Central Europe were efforts by (mostly
German) Christians to subjugate and convert the peoples of these areas to
Christianity. These Crusades ranged from the 12th century, contemporaneous with the
Second Crusade, to the 16th century.
Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the Stedingers. This crusade was
special, because the Stedingers were no heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman
Catholics. They were free Frisian farmers resented attempts of the count of Oldenburg
and the archbishop Bremen-Hamburg to make an end to their freedoms. The
archbishop excommunicated them and the pope declared a crusade in 1232. The
Stedingers were defeated in 1234.
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Crusade legacy
The Crusades had profound and lasting historical impacts.
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Europe
The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European Middle Ages. At times
much of the continent was united under a powerful Papacy, but by the 14th century
the old concept of Christendom was fragmented, and the development of centralized
bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern nation-state) was well on its way in
France, England, Burgundy, Portugal, Castile, and Aragon partly because of the
dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading era. Although Europe had
been exposed to Islamic culture for centuries through contacts in Spain and Sicily,
much Islamic thought, such as science, medicine, and architecture, was transferred to
the west during the crusades. The military experiences of the crusades also had their
effects in Europe; for example, European castles became massive stone structures, as
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they were in the east, rather than smaller wooden buildings as they had typically been
in the past. The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of
trade throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of Rome saw
significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons. This
was not only because the Crusades prepared Europe for travel, but rather that many
wanted to travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This
also aided in the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy, as various Italian city-states
from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader
states, both in the Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory. Despite the
ultimate defeat in the Middle East, the Crusaders slowed down the military expansion
of Islam, helped regaining the Iberian Peninsula and bought Europe some precious
time before it faced the next invading force of Islam - the Ottoman Empire.
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Islamic world
The crusades had profound but localized effects upon the Islamic world, where the
equivalents of "Franks" and "Crusaders" remained expressions of disdain. Muslims
traditionally celebrate Saladin, the Kurdish warrior, as a hero against the Crusaders. In
the 21st century, some in the Arab world, such as the Arab independence movement
and Pan-Islamism movement, continue to call Western involvement in the Middle
East a "crusade." The Crusades were regarded by the Islamic world as cruel and
savage onslaughts by European Christians.
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Jewish community
1250 French Bible illustration depicts Jews (identifiable by Judenhut) being
massacred by Crusaders
The Crusaders' atrocities against Jews in the German and Hungarian towns, later also
in those of France and England, and in the massacres of non-combatants in Palestine
and Syria have become a part of history of anti-Semitism. They ultimately resulted in
excommunication and similar ecclesiastical penalties against their perpetrators, as no
Crusade was declared against Jews, and left behind for centuries strong feelings of ill
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will on both sides. The social position of the Jews in western Europe was distinctly
worsened, and legal restrictions increased during and after the Crusades. They
prepared the way for anti-Jewish legislation of Pope Innocent III and formed the
turning-point in medieval anti-Semitism.
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The Caucasus
Many of the Crusaders did not return home to Europe, and instead crossed Asia Minor
and settled throughout the Caucasus, where several dozen small Caucasian dialects
bear traces of the medieval variants of French, German, Latin and English. Many
modern village dwellers count their descent from these Crusaders "gone native", and
as late as the early 20th century, relics of armor, weaponry and chain mail were still
being used and passed down in such communities.
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Usage of the term "crusade"
For other uses of the term "crusade", see
Crusade (disambiguation).
Look up Crusade in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original
crusaders were known by various terms, including fideles Sancti Petri (the faithful of
St. Peter) or milites Christi (knights of Christ). They saw themselves as undertaking
an iter, a journey, or a peregrinatio, a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually
forbidden from carrying arms. Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus), to
be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross
(crux) to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the crux, eventually
became associated with the entire journey; the word "crusade" (coming into English
from the French croisade, the Italian crociata, or the Portuguese cruzada) developed
from this.
Since the 17th century, the term "crusade" has carried a connotation in the West of
being a righteous campaign, usually to "root out evil", or to fight for a just cause. In a
non-historical common or theological use, "crusade" has come to have a much
broader emphatic or religious meaning —substantially removed from 'armed struggle.'
In a broader sense, "crusade" can be used, always in a rhetorical and metaphorical
sense, to identify as righteous any war that is given a religious justification ("Gott mit
uns," "God with us").
Ardent activists may also refer to their causes as "crusades," as in the "Crusade
against Adult Illiteracy," or a "Crusade against Littering." In recent years, however,
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the use of "crusade" as a positive term has become less frequent in order to avoid
giving offense to Muslims or others offended by the term. The term may also
sarcastically or pejoratively characterize the zealotry of agenda promoters, for
example with the monicker "Public Crusader" or the campaigns "Crusade for a
women's right to choose," and the "Crusade for prayer in public schools."
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Popular reputation
Cecil B. DeMille's Crusades, 1935
In Western Europe, the Crusades have traditionally been regarded by laypeople as
heroic adventures, though the mass enthusiasm of common people was largely
expended in the First Crusade, from which so few of their class returned. Today, the
"Saracen" adversary is crystallized in the lone figure of Saladin; his adversary Richard
the Lionheart is, in the English-speaking world, the archetypical crusader king, while
Frederick Barbarossa (illustration, below left) and Louis IX fill the same symbolic
niche in German and French culture. Even in contemporary areas, the crusades and
their leaders were romanticized in popular literature; the Chanson d'Antioche was a
chanson de geste dealing with the First Crusade, and the Song of Roland, dealing with
the era of the similarly romanticized Charlemagne, was directly influenced by the
experience of the crusades, going so far as to replace Charlemagne's historic Basque
opponents with Muslims. A popular theme for troubadors was the knight winning the
love of his lady by going on crusade in the east.
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The ever-living Frederick Barbarossa, in his mountain cave: a late 19th century
German woodcut
In the 14th century, Godfrey of Bouillon was united with the Trojan War and the
adventures of Alexander the Great against a backdrop for military and courtly heroics
of the Nine Worthies who stood as popular secular culture heroes into the 16th
century, when more critical literary tastes ran instead to Torquato Tasso and Rinaldo
and Armida, Roger and Angelica. Later, the rise of a more authentic sense of history
among literate people brought the Crusades into a new focus for the Romantic
generation in the romances of Sir Walter Scott in the early 19th century. Crusading
imagery could be found even in the Crimean War, in which the United Kingdom and
France were allied with the Muslim Ottoman Empire, and in the First World War,
especially Allenby's capture of Jerusalem in 1917 (illustration, below right).
Depiction of Richard I overlooking Jerusalem, in Punch Magazine, December 1917.
The caption read: "At last my dream come true."
In Spain, the popular reputation of the Crusades is outshone by the particularly
Spanish history of the Reconquista. El Cid is the central figure.
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Eastern Orthodoxy
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Like Muslims, Eastern Orthodox Christians also see the Crusades as attacks by the
barbarian West, but centered on the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Many relics and
artifacts taken from Constantinople are still in Roman Catholic hands, in the Vatican
and elsewhere. Disagreement currently exists between modern Turks and Greeks over
the claimant rights to the Greek Horses on the facade of St. Mark's in Venice. The
Greeks argue that the frieze is inherently part of Greek culture and identity, similar to
the "Elgin" Marbles and the Turks counter that the freize originated from what is now
modern-day Istanbul. A picture of Turkish popular history of the Crusades can be
assembled by compiling text of official Turkish brochures on Crusader fortifications
in the Aegean coast and coastal islands. Countries of Central Europe, despite the fact
that formally they also belonged to Western Christianity, were the most skeptical
about the idea of Crusades. Many cities in Hungary were sacked by passing bands of
Crusaders; one ruler of Poland refused to join a Crusade, allegedly because of the lack
of beer in the Holy land. Later on Poland and Hungary were themselves subject to
conquest from the Crusaders (see Teutonic Order), and therefore invented the idea
that pagans have the right to live in peace and have property rights to their lands (see
Pawel Wlodkowic).
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See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Category:Crusades
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Crusade art
Crusader States
Military orders
Religious Wars
Shepherds' Crusade
Tenth Crusade
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References and further reading
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Alfred J. Andrea, Encyclopedia of the Crusades.
Greenwood Press, 2003.
Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades, Islamic
Perspectives. New York, 2000.
P.M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades: The Near
East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. New
York, 1986.
Thomas F. Madden, The New Concise History of
the Crusades. Lanham, 2005.
Hans E. Mayer, The Crusades. Oxford, 1965.
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Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and
the Idea of Crusading. Philadelphia, 1986.
 Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the
Crusades. Oxford, 1995.
 Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, 3
vols., Cambridge, 1951-1954.
 Amin Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab
Eyes. 1983