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History, Theory, and Research Strategies Chapter 1 What is Developmental Science? Developmental science – field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the lifespan Great diversity exists among investigators who study development, but all have 1 major goal… Major goal: to identify those factors that influence consistencies and transformations in people from conception to death The Field of Human Development Scientific – conduct empirical research Applied – meaning practical use Interdisciplinary – meaning that people from many different fields contribute to the study of human development Theories of Development Theory – orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior Example: theory of infant-caregiver attachment would: 1) describe the behaviors of babies 6-8 months old as they seek the affection and comfort of a familiar adult 2) explain how and why infants develop this strong desire to bond with a caregiver 3) predict the consequences of this emotional bond for future relationships Theories are important for 2 reasons: Provide organizing frameworks for our observations Theories verified by research provide a sound basis for how to improve welfare of individuals 3 Basic Issues in Development 1. 2. 3. Continuous or discontinuous? One course of development or many? Nature or nurture? Continuous or Discontinuous? Continuous – a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with Discontinuous – a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge a specific times Stages – qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development Is there one course of development or many? Stage theorists assume that people everywhere follow the same sequence of development But… field of human development is becoming increasingly aware that different contexts matter Contexts – unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change Example: Personal: a shy person who fears social encounters develops in very different contexts from people who are more outgoing and readily seek out other people Environmental: people who grow up in a third world village society have different experiences in their families than people who grow up in an American city Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture Are genetic or environmental factors more important? Nature – inborn biological givens The information we inherit from our parents at the moment of conception Nurture – the complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth Example: do children learn language rapidly because they are genetically predisposed to do so or because their parents teach them from an early age? Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture (cont.) A theory’s position on the roles of nature vs. nurture affect how it explains individual differences Nature/heredity Stability – that individuals who are high or low in a characteristic (i.e., verbal ability or anxiety) will stay that way throughout their life Nurture/environment Plasticity – that change is possible and even likely if new experiences support it Development as a Dynamic System More and more, researchers are regarding development as a dynamic system Perpetually ongoing process Conception to Death Influences on development Biological Psychological Social The Lifespan Perspective Leading dynamic systems approach 4 major assumptions: development is… Lifelong Multidimensional and multidirectional Highly plastic Affected my multiple, interacting forces Within each age period change occurs in 3 broad domains Physical Cognitive Emotional/social Lifespan View of Development Periods of Development Prenatal Conception to birth Infancy and Toddlerhood Birth to 2 years Early Childhood 2 to 6 years Middle Childhood 6 to 11 years Adolescence 11 to 18 years Early Adulthood 18 to 40 years Middle Adulthood 40 to 65 years Late Adulthood 65 years to death Lifespan Assumption 1 Development is Lifelong Every age period can have equally powerful effects on future change No single period has a “supreme” impact on the life course Lifespan Assumption 2 Development is Multidimensional and multidirectional Multidimensional: development is affected by a blend of biological, psychological, and social forces Multidirectional in 2 ways development is not limited to improved performance. Every period consists of growth and decline Change is also multidirectional within each domain of development (physical, cognitive, and emotional/social) Lifespan Assumption 3 Development is Plastic or Flexible Adaptations and changes can occur at all ages Aging is not an eventual “shipwreck” Different opportunities can yield different outcomes Lifespan Assumption 4 Development is influenced by multiple, interacting forces Biological, historical, social, and cultural These multiple influences work together Combine in unique ways in each individual life course 3 Types of Influences Age-graded influences – events that are strongly related to age and therefore are fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last Example: most people begin walking shortly after their 1st birthday History-graded influences – influences on development unique to a particular historical era (ex. epidemics, wars, periods of economic prosperity or depression) Example: my great-grandmother was raised during a time of great economic depression and because of this she stockpiled goods in her home. Today she would be described in modern terms as a “hoarder” Nonnormative influences – irregular events that only happen to one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable Example: an inspiring childhood teacher or meeting your life-partner on a random blind-date Scientific Beginnings Scientific study of human development dates back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries Charles Darwin – 19th century theory of evolution Studying natural selection and survival of the fittest lead other scientists to speculate about the evolution and development of humans Thus, the scientific study of human development was born… no pun intended The Normative Period G. Stanley Hall – early 20th century - founder of the child study movement Intensive efforts to describe all aspects of development launched the normative approach Normative approach – measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals, and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development Mid-20th Century Theories Mid-20th Century – study of human development expanded into a legitimate discipline and several theories and perspectives emerged The psychoanalytic perspective Behaviorism and social learning theory Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory The Psychoanalytic Perspective 1930s and 1940s driven by attempts to treat psychological problems: How and why do people become the way they are? Psychoanalytic perspective answer: people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person’s ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety 2 main theorists Sigmund Freud – psychosexual theory Erik Erikson – psychosocial theory Psychoanalytic Perspective: Freud Psychosexual theory – emphasizes that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the 1st few years of life is crucial for healthy personality development Id Ego Superego •Largest portion of the mind •Unconscious, present at birth •Source of biological needs & desires •Conscious, rational part of mind •Emerges in early infancy •Redirects id impulses acceptably •The conscience •Develops from ages 3 to 6 from interactions with caregivers Psychoanalytic Perspective: Freud Psychosexual stages – During childhood sexual impulses shift their focus from the oral to the anal to the genital regions of the body If parents strike an appropriate balance, then the child will grow into a well-adjusted adult Psychosexual Stage Period of Development Oral Birth – 1 year Anal 1 – 3 years Phallic 3 – 6 years Latency 6 – 11 years Genital Adolescence Psychoanalytic Perspective: Erikson Psychosocial theory – emphasized that the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society Basic psychological conflict between positive and negative occurs at each stage in development How the conflict between positive and negative is resolved at each stage determines if healthy or maladaptive outcomes occur Psychoanalytic Perspective: Erikson Psychosocial Stage Basic trust v. mistrust Autonomy v. shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt Industry v. inferiority Period of Development Birth to 1 year 1–3 years 3–6 years 6–11 years Identity v. role confusion Intimacy v. isolation Generativity v. stagnation Ego integrity v. despair Adolescence Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood Psychoanalytic Perspective: Erikson 1st 5 stages parallel Freud, but Erikson added 3 more adult stages Normal development must be understood in relation to each culture’s life situation Child rearing can be understood only in relation to the competencies valued and needed by an individual’s society Psychoanalytic Perspective: Strengths and weaknesses Strengths Emphasis on the individual’s unique life history Inspired research on many aspects of emotional and social development (infant-caregiver attachment, aggression, sibling relationships, child-rearing practices, morality, gender roles, and adolescent identity) Weaknesses No longer in the mainstream of human development research Too focused on the clinical approach, failed to consider other methods Psychosexual stages and ego functioning are so vague that they are difficult or impossible to test empirically Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory Behaviorism – only directly observable events are appropriate to study Completely disregards anything that cant be directly observed (like Freud’s id, ego, and superego) John Watson – founder of behaviorism, backlash against psychoanalysis Goal: to create an objective science of psychology, disregard unseen inner workings of the mind Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory Classical conditioning – Showed that a reflex (an involuntary reaction) could be caused to occur in response to a formerly unrelated stimulus Dog Study: Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory Watson wanted to see if classical conditioning could be applied to children’s behavior “Little Albert” study Conditioned a baby to fear a white rat by paring it with a loud noise http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FKZAYt77ZM Concluded that environment is the supreme force in development Adults can mold children’s behavior by controlling stimulus- response associations Viewed development as a continuous process, consisting of gradual increase with age in the number and strength of these associations Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory Operant conditioning theory (B.F. Skinner) The frequency of a behavior can be increased or decreased Increased: follow the behavior with a reward called a reinforcer (food, praise, friendly smile) Decreased: follow the behavior with punishment (disapproval or withdrawal of privileges) Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura – most influential social learning theorist Social learning theory – emphasizes modeling, AKA imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development Example: baby claps her hands after seeing her mother do so Diverse factors effect children’s motivation to imitate Their own history of reinforcement or punishment for the behavior The promise of future reinforcement or punishment Even vicarious reinforcement or punishment (observing the model being reinforced or punished) Today, social learning theory stresses the importance of cognition, or thinking Behaviorism & Social Learning Theory: Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths Behavior modification - procedures that combine conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses Example: eliminating bad habits such as smoking and nail biting Weaknesses Many theorists believe behaviorism and social learning theory have too narrow of a focus on environmental influences Criticized for underestimating people’s contributions to their own development Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory Jean Piaget – most influential researcher on child development Did not believe that children’s learning depends on reinforcers Cognitive-developmental theory – children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world Based on biological concept of adaptation Just as structures of the body are adapted to fit with the environment, structures of the mind also develop to better fit with, or represent, the external world Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory Infancy & early childhood: children’s understanding is different from adults’ Example: young babies do not realize that an object hidden from view (like a favorite toy) continues to exist Preschool: thinking is full of faulty logic Example: children younger than 7 years commonly say that the amount of a liquid changes when it is poured into a differentshaped container Eventually revise incorrect ideas via ongoing efforts to achieve equilibrium, or balance, between internal structures and information they encounter in their everyday worlds Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 4 broad stages occur as the brain develops and experiences expand Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years) – cognitive development begins with the baby’s use of the senses and movements to explore the world Preoperational stage (2-7 years) – action patterns evolve into symbolic but illogical thinking Concrete operational stage (7-11 years) – cognition is transformed into more organized, logical reasoning Formal operational stage (11 years-on) – thought becomes an abstract, systematic reasoning system Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths Children are active learners whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge Stages sparked research on children’s conceptions of themselves, other people, and human relationships Encouraged development of discovery learning programs which emphasize direct contact with the environment Weaknesses Underestimated the competence of infants and preschoolers Stages pay insufficient attention to social and cultural influences on development Cognitive changes do not stop occurring in adolescence Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Information Processing Information processing – views the human mind as a computer A symbol-manipulating system through which information flows Information is presented to the senses during input, information is actively coded transformed and organized, then emerges as output a behavioral response Regard people as actively making sense of their own thinking Continuous change – thought processes are regarded as similar at all ages but present to a lesser or greater extent Uses flowcharts to map the precise steps individuals use to solve problems and complete tasks Example: 5-year-old solving a bridge building problem Use the blocks to build a bridge a cross a “river” painted on the floor too wide for any single block to span Child discovers how to counterweight and balance the bridge Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Information Processing Strengths Commitment to rigorous research methods Provided precise accounts of how people tackle many cognitive tasks Weaknesses Better at analyzing thinking into components than putting them back together into a comprehensive theory Virtually ignores aspects of cognition that are not linear and logical Such as imagination and creativity Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Developmental cognitive neuroscience – studies the relationship between changes in the brain and cognitive processing and behavior patterns Uses brain-imaging techniques to analyze relationships between brain functioning, cognitive capacities, and behavior Gain knowledge regarding: The types of experiences that support or undermine brain development at various ages The brain bases of many learning and behavior disorders Example: ADHD has been linked to dysfunction in brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Ethology Ethology – concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history Critical period – a limited time span during which the individual is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment Example: if children are deprived of adequate food or physical and social stimulation during their early years, will intelligence be impaired? Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Ethology Sensitive period – time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influence Boundaries are less well-defined than those of the critical period Development can occur later, but it is harder to induce Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Evolutionary developmental psychology – seeks to understand the adaptive value of specieswide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age Clarify origins and development of behaviors Example: life-threatening risk taking in adolescents and male-to-male violence may have been adaptive in our ancestors But today, our lifestyles are so radically different that these behaviors are no longer adaptive Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural theory – focuses on how culture is transmitted on to the next generation values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group Social interaction – necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community’s culture Views cognitive development as a socially mediated process Children depend on assistance from adults and more expert peers to tackle new challenges Recent Theoretical Perspectives: Ecological Systems Theory Ecological systems theory – views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Views the environment as a series of nested structures Microsystem – innermost level, activities and interaction patterns in immediate surroundings (immediate family, school) Mesosystem – second level, connections between microsystems Exosystem – third level, social settings that do not contain the person but affect experiences in immediate settings (neighbors, extended family, board of directors in the workplace) Macrosystem – outermost level, cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Studying Development Hypothesis – prediction about behavior drawn from a theory Research methods Basic approach to gathering information Systematic observations, self-reports, clinical or case studies, ethnographies Research designs Overall plans for research studies Permit the best possible test of the investigator’s hypothesis Common Research Methods: Systematic Observation Naturalistic observation In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens Example: observing children in their homes or schools Structured observation Laboratory situation set up to evoke the desired behavior All participants have an equal chance to display behavior Used when the behavior of interest is very difficult or impossible to observe in the “field” Common Research Methods: SelfReports Clinical interview Researchers use a flexible, conversation style Probe for the participant’s point of view Structured interview Each participant is asked the same questions in the same way Can use questionnaires to assess large numbers of people Common Research Methods: Clinical, or Case Study Brings together a wide range on information on one person Interviews, observations, test scores, etc. Well-suited to study types of individuals who are few in number but vary widely in characteristics Example: prodigies – extremely gifted children who attain adult competence in a field before age 10 Common Research Methods: Ethnography Descriptive, qualitative technique Goal: understand a culture or a distinct social group Participant observation – researcher spends months, and sometimes years, in the cultural community, participating in its daily life General Research Designs: Correlational Reveals relationships between variables (between characteristics and behavior or development) Does NOT reveal cause-effect!!! Correlation coefficient – number that determines strength and direction of relationship Strength Size of the number between 1 and -1 The closer to 1 (positive or negative) the stronger the relationship Direction Positive: as one variable increases/decreases so does the other Negative: as one variable increases the other decreases General Research Designs: Experimental Can determine cause-effect relationships because researchers randomly assign participants to two or more treatment conditions Independent variables What the researcher expects to cause changes in another variable Directly manipulated/controlled by the researcher Dependent variables What the investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable Researcher measures but does not manipulate General Research Designs: Experimental Random Assignment - unbiased procedure used to assign participants to treatment conditions Increases chances that characteristics will be equally distributed across conditions General Research Designs: Modified Experiments Field Experiment Capitalize on opportunities for random assignment in natural settings Natural/Quasi-experiment Compare treatment conditions that already exist Example: gender, age Try to match groups as closely as possible Developmental Research Designs Same group studied Longitudinal at different times CrossSectional Differing groups studied at the same time Sequential Several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies at varying times Developmental Research Designs: Longitudinal Strengths Tracks performance of each person over time, can identify common patterns and individual differences in development Can examine relationships between early and later events and behaviors Weaknesses Participants may drop out of the study or move away Practice effects – performance may improve as a result of better test-taking skills and increased familiarity with the test, not because of factors associated with development Cohort effects – results based on one cohort may not apply to people developing at different times Because people born in the same time period are influenced by historical and cultural conditions of that specific time Ethics in Lifespan Research Institutional Review Boards (IRB) Committees that weigh the costs of the research to participants in terms of inconvenience and possible psychological or physical injury against the study’s value for advancing knowledge and improving conditions of life If there are risks to participants’ safety and welfare that the research does not justify, preference is always given to the participants’ interests Rights of Research Participants Protection from harm Informed consent Privacy Knowledge of results Beneficial treatments See Table 1.8 page 39, in text book