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Introduction to Ethics
Definitions, moral theories
and principles
Presented by Dr. Paul Voakes
at CSMA Winter Thaw 2017
What is Ethics, anyway?
Three serviceable definitions
(New Oxford American) “Moral principles that govern a
person’s or group’s behavior”
(Random House): “study dealing with values relating to
human conduct, with respect to the rightness or
wrongness of certain actions . . . And the motives and
ends of such actions.”
Paul Voakes: The process of making rational choices
between what is morally justifiable and unjustifiable
What Ethics Isn’t
It’s not intuitive – it’s deliberate, rational
– Good ethical decisions are based on evidencebased reasoning, not gut feelings
We try to ‘do’ ethics, not ‘have’ ethics
A code of ethics is NOT a legal code
What Ethics Isn’t
Ethics is not the same as ‘morals’
– Morality: a set of beliefs one embraces, to provide
the basis for right/wrong, good/bad distinctions
– Ethics brings morality into real-life dilemmas*,
concluding with ‘what ought to be done’
*Why are they dilemmas? Because two or more moral values
are in conflict
So, what’s the correct answer?
Usually, multiple justifiable decisions
Let’s teach tools for ethical reasoning,
not simply do’s and don’t’s
Each situation is different, to be sure
– But our system of thinking about ‘doing the
right thing’ should be consistent
– And beyond journalism: It doesn’t hurt to
be able to apply the tools to ‘teen life’
Let’s not confuse
Law and Ethics
Law
– Rights, requirements, prohibitions that are
enforceable by government
– ‘Must,’ ‘must not,’ ‘can,’ ‘cannot . . .’
Let’s not confuse
Law and Ethics
Ethics
– Seeking morally justifiable behaviors
– ‘Ought,’ ‘ought not’
– In an ethical dilemma, don’t stop once
you’ve discovered what the law says
‘It’s OK legally, but is it ethical?’
Why moral principles?
Certain principles have withstood
decades – centuries – of scrutiny
Principles underlie – and help justify –
the ethical decisions we must make
Principles provide continuity
–
–
–
–
In one person’s job
Throughout one person’s life
Through an organization’s life
Throughout a culture or society
The great moral theories:
Deontology
The Categorical Imperative
– Immanuel Kant
– Embrace any moral rule that should be
applied universally
– A moral rule NOT subject to conditions or
special circumstances (examples?)
– And . . . human beings are never treated
as a means to an end, but as the “end,” in
and of themselves
Deontology, cont’d.
Deontologists have ‘duties’
– Strict duties (prohibitions)
– Meritorious duties (positive acts)
Even consequences are irrelevant!
Categorical imperatives for journalism?
Advantages of deontology
A code of ethics! But . . .
Disadvantages of deontology
Utilitarianism
A strain of Consequentialis
Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill
Focuses not on the act itself, but on the likely
results of the act
Goal: Result produces the ‘aggregate good’ –
the greatest good for the greatest number
– And yes, occasionally some must be harmed in order to
benefit the many
The important converse: Minimize the harm to those
who will probably be harmed
Utilitarianism cont’d.
Hedonism: Is everybody happy?
– ‘Pleasure’ now taken to mean high-order
‘goods: Freedom, justice, knowledge, prosperity
Act Utilitarianism: Stop to analyze likely
outcomes of each decision
Utilitarianism is fundamentally more
democratic
Utilitarianism, cont’d.
So how does it work? (back to lying,
Robin Hood)
For Journalism: The sharing of
important information is a commonlyinvoked ‘greater good’
Advantages? (Crystal Ball’? Judge the intentions of my
greater-good forecasting, not the accuracy!)
Disadvantages? (The Crystal Ball again!)
Hybrids of these two?
Mixed-rule deontology
(e.g. Lying to protect? Robin Hood thievery?)
Rule Utilitarianism: Know that certain
acts tend to consistently produce
desirable outcomes
A third tried-and-true approach
Aristotle’s Golden Mean
Virtue lies in the ‘moderate middle’
between excess and deficiency
– Between stinginess and wastefulness?
– Between cowardice and foolhardiness?
– Between bashfulness and
shamelessness?