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Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Language Arts 2 column notes Chapter 3 – Cell Structure and Section 1 – Discovering Cells Function Chloroplast; prefix – chlor, meaning – green - A cellular structure that captures energy from sunlight. Cytoskeleton; prefix – cyto, meaning – cell - The framework inside a cell Multicellular; prefix – multi, meaning – many - Having many cells Unicellular; prefix – uni, meaning – one - Having one cell Cells – are the basic units of structure and function in living things. Cells form the parts of an organism and carry out all of an organism’s processes or function. - The invention of the microscope made it possible for people to discover and learn about cells. - Size, each red blood cell is about 7 micrometers across. - Robert Hooke- English scientist and inventor, first person to observe cells with compound microscope he built himself. - Anton van Leeuwenhoek-Dutch businessmen who observed tiny objects with microscopes, called moving Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 organisms animalcules ‘little animals’. Cell theory – explanation of relationship between cells and living things. States: - All living things are composed of cells - Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things. - All cells are produced from other cells. Unicellular – Single-celled organism including bacteria Multicellular – organism composed of many cells - Organized into tissues, organs and organ systems. Tissue – a group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function (example: brain) Organ – an organ like a brain is made up of different kinds of tissues that work together (example nervous tissue) Organ-System – a group of organs that work together to perform a major function. Section 2 – Looking inside cells Organelle – carry out specific functions within the cell Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Cell wall – a rigid layer of nonliving material that surrounds the cells of plants and some other organisms. - A cell wall helps to protect and support the cell. Cytoskeleton – a protein or ‘framework’ inside the cell that gives the cells their shape. Cell membrane – barrier after cell wall, forms outside boundary that separates the cell from its environment. - The cell membrane controls what substances come into and out of a cell. Nucleus – acts as the control center of the cell - The nucleus is the cell’s control center, firecting allof the cell’s activities. Cytoplasm – region between the cell membrane and the nucleus. - In the cytoplasm are many organelles, including mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, chloroplasts, vacuoles, and lysosomes. Each of these organelles has specific functions in the cell. Mitochondria – rod-shaped structures known as the powerhouse they convert energy in food molecules to energy the cell can use to carry out its functions. Endoplasmic reticulum – maze of passageways that help form proteins and other materials. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Ribosome – function as factories to produce proteins. Golgi body – organelles that transport materials, they receive proteins and other newly formed materials from the endoplasmic reticulum, package and distribute materials to other parts of the cell and release materials outside the cell. Chloroplast – organisms with green organelles that capture energy from sunlight and use it to produce food. - Chloroplasts make leaves green. Vacuole – large water filled sac in the cytoplasm, storage areas of the cells. Lysosome – small round structures containing chemicals that break down certain materials in the cell like old cell parts and release the substances so they can be used again. Section 3 – Chemical Compounds in cells Element – any substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Compounds – two or more elements combine chemically they form a compound. - Most chemical reactions within cells could not take place without water. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 - Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are important groups of organic compounds in living things. Carbohydrate – energy rich organic compound made of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. - Sugars and starches are examples of carbohydrates. - In addition to providing energy for the cell, carbohydrates are important components of some cell parts. Lipid – energy righ organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Contain more energy than carbohydrates. - In addition to their function as an energy source, lipids also make up most of the cell membrane. Protein – large organic molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and in some cases sulfur. - Food examples; meat, eggs, fish, nuts and beans Amino acid – protein molecules are made up of smaller molecules called amino acids. Enzyme – type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing. - Proteins known as enzymes perform important functions in the chemical reactions that take place in cells. Nucleic acid – very long organic molecules Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus. - Nucleic acids contain the instructions that cells need to carry out all the functions of life. DNA – nucleic acid – genetic material that carries information about an organixsm and is passed from parent to offspring. RNA – nucleic acid – plays important role in the production of proteins. Chapter 4 – Cell processes and Energy Section 1 – Photosynthesis Autotroph; Greek word – auto, meaning – self - An organism that makes food for itself Heterotrophy; Greek word – hetero, meaning other, different - An organism that depends on other organisms for food Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Cytokinesis; Greek – kinesis, meaning – motion - During cell division, the process in which a cell’s cytoplasm divides and organelles move into the two new cells that form Trophe – Greek meaning food. Photosynthesis – Greek word photo meaning light and synthesis means putting together. - Nearly all living things obtain energy either directly or indirectly from the energy of sunlight captured during photosynthesis. - During photosynthesis, plants and some other organisms use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and sugars. Autotroph – an organism that makes its own food Heterotrophy – an organism that cannot make its own food, including animals such as the zebra and the lion. Pigment – colored chemical compounds that absorb light. Chlorophyll – main photosynthetic pigment in chloroplasts. Stomata – carbon dioxide enters the plant Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 through small openings on the undersides of the leaves called stomata. Once in the leaves the water and carbon dioxide move into the chloroplasts. Section 2 – Respiration Respiration – the process by which cells obtain energy from glucose. - During respiration, cells break down simple food molecules such as sugar and release the energy they contain. - Cells store energy to be used at a later time when needed. - 1st stage takes place in the cytoplasm. Molecules of glucose are broken down into smaller molecules. A small amount of energy is released. - 2nd stage takes place in the mitochondria, small molecules are broken down into even smaller molecules. Chemical reactions require oxygen and release a great deal of energy. - * Two products of respiration are; carbon dioxide and water. Respiration Equation: - C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O+ Energy - Sugar + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy Fermentation – organisms obtain their energy through fermentation. Energy releasing process that does not require oxygen. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 - Fermentation provides energy for cells without using oxygen. Alcoholic Fermentation - Products of alcoholic fermentation are important to bakers and brewers. The carbon dioxide produced by yeast creates air pockets in bread dough causing it to rise. Carbon dioxide is also the source of bubbles in alcoholic drinks such as beer and sparkling wine. Lactic Acid Fermentation – when muscles cells use up oxygen faster than your body can replace it your cells lack oxygen and fermentation occurs. The fermentation supplies your cells with energy. - One product of this type of fermentation is lactic acid. - When lactic acid builds up you feel painful sensations in your muscles, weak and sore. Section 3 – Cell division Cell cycle – the regulare sequence of growth and division that cells undergo. Interphase – first stage of the cell cycle the period before cell division. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 - During Interphase the cell grows makes a copy of its DNA and prepares to divide into two cells. Replication – cell makes an exact copy of the DNA in its nucleus in a process called replication. Mitosis – second stage of the cell cycle when the cells nucleus divides into two new nuclei. - During mitosis one copy of the DNA is distributed into each of the two daughter cells. - Divided into four parts: - 1) pro-phase - 2) metaphase - 3) anaphase - 4) telophase Chromosome – During prophase threadlike chromoatin in the nucleus condenses to form double-rod structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome has two rods because the cells DNA has replicated, each rod in a chromosome is an exact copy of the other. Cytokinesis – final stage of the cell cycle, completes the process of cell division. - During Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides, organelles are distributed into each of the two new cells. - Animals; the cell membrane squeezes together around the middle of the cell. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 - Plants; the rigid cell wall cannot squeeze together in the same way that a cell membrane can. Instead a structure called cell plate forms across the middle of the cell. Section 4 – Cell Differentiation Differentiation – the process by which cells change in structure and become capable of carrying out specialized functions. - As cells differentiate, they become different from one another. - Cells form groups made of other similarly specialized cells. - Cell groups form tissues and organs Stem cell – humans, not plants, that can differentiate throughout life. Stem cells exist all around the body. - Respond to specific needs in the body by becoming specialized. - - example; new blood cells to replace older cells. Chapter 5 Genetics: The Science of Section 1 – Mendel’s work Heredity Importance; suffix – ance/ence, meaning state of, quality of - State of being important Dependent; suffix – ant/ent, meaning – inclined to, likely to Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 - Likely to rely on something or someone else Simplicity; suffix – ity, meaning – state of, quality of - State of being simple or easy Production; suffix – tion, meaning – process of state of - Process of making Gergor Mendel – European monastery monk and gardener. He studied Pea Plants. Heredity – the passing of physical characteristics from parents to offspring. Trait – each different form of a characteristic such as stem height or seed color is called a trait. Genetics – the study of heredity. - Mendel experimented with thousands of pea plants to understand the process of heredity, his discoveries form the foundation of genetics. - In all of Mendel’s crosses trails of F1 offspring to F2 offspring; only one form of the trai appeared in the F1 generation. However, in the F2 generation, the ‘lost’ form of the trait always reappeared in about one fourth of the plants. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Fertilization – when the female pistil sex cells or eggs, join to male stamens produced pollen or male sperm and a new organism begins to form. Purebred – an organism is the offspring of many generations that have the same trait. Gene – term used by scientists today for the factors that control traits. Alleles – are the different forms of a gene. - An organism’s traits are determined by the alleles it inherits from its parents. Some alleles are dominant, while other alleles are recessive. Dominant allele – one whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present. Recessive allele – hidden trait whenever the dominant allele is present. Hybrid – an organism has two different alleles for a trait. Section 2 – Probability and Heredity Probability - predict the results of a particular event. - The number that describes how likely it is that a certain event will occur. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Punnett Square – chart that shows how the laws of probability apply to genetics. - Shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross. - Using the square- in a genetic cross, the allele that each parent will pass on to its offspring is based on probability. Phenotype – an organisms phenotype is its physical appearance, or visible traits. Genotype - an organism’s genothype is its genetic makeup or allele combinations. Homozygous – an organism that has two identical alleles for a trait. Heterozygous – an organism that has two different alleles for a trait Codominance – an inheritance pattern - In Codominance, the alleles are neither dominant nor recessive. As a result, both alleles are expressed in the offspring. Section 3 – The Cell and Inheritance Sexual reproduction – genetic material from two parents combines to produce a new organism, which differs from both parents. Diploid – cell contain two sets of chromosomes, one set from each parent. - According to the chromosome theory of inheritance, genes are carried from Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 parents to their offspring on chromosomes. Meiosis – the process by which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half to form sex cells – sperm and eggs. - During meiosis, the chromosome pairs separate and are distributed to two different cells. The resulting sex cells have only half as many chromosomes as the other cells in the organism. Section 4 – Genes, DNA, and Proteins Order of bases – the order of the nitrogen bases along a gene forms a genetic code that specifies what type of protein will be produced. Production of proteins – During protein synthesis, the cell uses information from a gene on a chromosome to produce a specific protein. Messenger RNA – protein synthesis; messenger RNA copies the coded message from the DNA in the nucleus and carries the message to the ribosome in the cytoplasm. Transfer RNA – carries amino acids to the ribosome and adds them to the growing protein. Mutation – any change in a gene or chromosome. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 - Mutations can cause a cell to produce an incorrect protein during protein synthesis. - As a result the organism’s trait or phenotype may be different from what it normally would have been. - Type 1) single base may be substituted for another or one or more bases may be removed from a section of DNA. - Type 2) when chromosomes don’t separate correctly during meiosis. A cell can end up with too many or too few chromosomes or an extra segment of chromosomes. Chapter 6 – Modern Genetics Section 1 – Human Inheritance Some human traits are controlled by single genes with two alleles and others by single genes with multiple alleles. Still other traits are controlled by many genes that act together. Multiple alleles – three or more forms of a gene that code for a single trait. Sex chromosomes- one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in each body cell. - The sex chromosomes carry genes that determine whether a person is male or female. They also carry gewnes that determine other traits. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Sex-linked gene – Genes on the X and Y chromosomes are called sex-linked genes because their alleles are passed from parent to child on a sex chromosome. - Example: Red-green colorblindness. Carrier – a person who has one recessive allele for a trait and one dominant allele. - Many of an organism’s characteristics are determined by an interaction between genes and the environment. Section 2 – Human Genetic Disorders Genetic disorder – an abnormal condition that a person inherits through genes or chromosomes. - Some genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA of genes. - Other disorders are caused by changes in the overall structure or number of chromosomes. Pedigree – a chart used by geneticists to trace the inheritance of traits in humans, a family tree that tracks which members of a family have a particular trait. Karyotype - a picture of all the chromosomes in a cell. Section 3 – Advances in Genetics Selective breeding, cloning and genetic engineering are three methods for developing organisms with desirable traits. – Process of selecting organisms with desired traits to be parents of the next generation. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Inbreeding – involves crossing two individuals that have similar characteristics. - Inbred organisms have alleles that are very similar to those of their parents. Hybridization – breeders cross two genetically different individuals the results is to bred to have the best traits from both parents. Clone – an organism that has exactly the same genes as the organism from which it was produced. Genetic engineering – genes from one organism are transferred into the DNA of another organism. - Can produce medicines and improve food crops Gene therapy – the ability to correct some genetic disorders in humans. It will involve inserting copies of a gene directly into a persons’ cells. Genome – The Human Genome Project - Is all the DNA in one cell of an organism. - Goal of project to identify the DNA swquence of every gene in the human genome. Chapter 16 – The Endocrine System Section 1 – The Endocrine System and Reproduction Differentiate – verb - To change and become specialized in the process of embryo development Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Menstruate – verb - To lose blood and tissue in a monthly cycle Ovulate – verb - To release an egg from an ovary The endocrine system produces chemicals that control many of the body’s daily activities. - The endocrine system also regulates long-term changes such as growth and development. Endocrine gland – produce and release their chemical products directly into the bloodstream. Blood carries those chemicals throughout the body. Hormone – chemical product of an endocrine gland, hormones turn on turn off, speed up or slow down the activities of different organs and tissues. Target cell – specialized cells that recognize the hormones chemical structure. - Hormones travel through the bloods stream until they find the ‘lock’ or particular cell type that they fit. The endocrine glands include the Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, thymus and pancreas. - They also include the ovaries in females and testes in males. Pituitary gland – below the hypothalamus, the size of a pea is the pituitary gland. - Communicates with the hypothalamus to control many body activities. Negative feedback – type of signal used in the body providing feedback to turn off the condition it produces. - Through negative feedback when the amount of a particular hormone in the blood reaches a certain level the endocrine system sends signals that stop the release of that hormone. Section 2 – The Male and Female Reproductive Systems Egg – female sex cell Sperm – male sex cell Testis – oval shaped organs of the male reproductive system in which sperm are produced. Testosterone – a hormone that controls the development of physical characgteristics in Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 mature men. Scrotum – where testes are located in an external pouch of skin. Semen – mixture of sperm cells and fluids Penis – organ where semen leaves the body Urethra – tube in the penis through which the semen travels out of the body Ovary – female reporiductive structures that produce and store eggs. Estrogen – endocrine glands that produce hormones, triggers the development of some adult female characteristics. Fallopian tube – oviducts are passageways for eggs as they travel from the ovary to the uterus. Usually the egg is fertilized in a fallopian tube. Uterus – a hollow muscular organ about the size of a pear. Vagina – a muscular passageway leading to the outside of the body, the birth canal. Menstrual cycle – the monthly cycle when an egg is produced and released creating the monthly cycle of changes in a female reproductive system. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Follicle – an egg matures within it is own grouping of cells called a follicle. Ovulation – the process in which an egg is released. Menstruation – Same time egg is prepared to be released the lining of the uterus begins to thicken. If the egg is not fertilized then the egg and extra blood and tissue of the thickened lining are sloughed off and pass out of the body through the vagina. Section 3 – Pregnancy, Development, and Birth - The zygote develops into an embryo and then into a fetus. Differentiation leads to specialized cells, tissues, and organs. Embryo – two-cell stage through 8th week of development Differentiation – the process by which cells change and become specialized. Fetus – from about the 9th week of pregnancy to birth Amniotic sac – one membrane surrounds the embryo and develops into a fluid filled sac Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Placenta – an organ that develops from fetal tissue during pregnancy, blood vessels are located next to the mother’s blood vessels. Umbilical cord – ropelike structure between the embryo and the placenta contains veins and arteries that link the fetus to the mother. Adolescence – stage of development during which children mature into adults physically and mentally. Puberty – between the ages of 9 and 15 years, girls and boys enter puberty the period of development in which the body becomes able to reproduce. Chapter 7 - Changes Over Time Section 1 – Darwin’s Theory Theory – Noun – Scientific Meaning; a welltested concept that explains a wide range of observations. Cast – Noun – Scientific Meaning; a type of fossil that forms when a mold becomes filled with minerals Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Species – a group of similar organisms that can mate with each other and produce fertile offspring. Fossil – preserved remains or traces of an organism that lived in the past. Adaption – a trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce in its environment. Evolution – gradual change in a species over time. Scientific theory – a well tested concept that explains a wide range of observations. Natural selection – evolution occurs through natural selection when individuals that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce than other members of the same species. Variation- difference between individuals of the same species is genetic variation. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Section 2 – Evidence of Evolution Comparative anatomy – comparison of the structures of different organisms. Homologous structures – similar structures that related species have inherited from a common ancestor. Mold – a hallow area I sediment in the shape of an organism or part of an organism. Cast – a solid copy of the shape of an organism. Petrified fossil – fossil formed whe the remains of an organism become petrified, fossils in which minerals replace all or part of an organism. Trace fossil – provide evidence of the activities of ancient organism like footprints. Paleontologist – scientists who study fossils. Gradualism – a hypothesis that proposes that evolution occurs slowly but steadily. Rebekah Zeleny #28 October 22, 2010 Punctuated equilibria – hypothesis that accounts for the gaps in the fossil record. Section 3 – Evolution of Species Habitat – the specific environment that provides the things the organism needs to live, grow and reproduce. Extinct – species where no members of that species are still alive. Notes: Endocrine System – produces chemicals that control many of the bodies daily activities as well as growth / development. Negative Feedback – when a particular hormone gets to a specific level, it stops the release of that hormone.