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Rebekah Zeleny #28
October 22, 2010
Language Arts 2 column notes
Chapter 3 – Cell Structure and
Section 1 – Discovering Cells
Function
Chloroplast; prefix – chlor, meaning – green
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A cellular structure that captures energy
from sunlight.
Cytoskeleton; prefix – cyto, meaning – cell
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The framework inside a cell
Multicellular; prefix – multi, meaning – many
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Having many cells
Unicellular; prefix – uni, meaning – one
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Having one cell
Cells – are the basic units of structure and
function in living things. Cells form the parts of
an organism and carry out all of an organism’s
processes or function.
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The invention of the microscope made it
possible for people to discover and learn
about cells.
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Size, each red blood cell is about 7
micrometers across.
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Robert Hooke- English scientist and
inventor, first person to observe cells
with compound microscope he built
himself.
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek-Dutch
businessmen who observed tiny objects
with microscopes, called moving
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organisms animalcules ‘little animals’.
Cell theory – explanation of relationship
between cells and living things. States:
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All living things are composed of cells
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Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things.
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All cells are produced from other cells.
Unicellular – Single-celled organism including
bacteria
Multicellular – organism composed of many
cells
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Organized into tissues, organs and
organ systems.
Tissue – a group of similar cells that work
together to perform a specific function
(example: brain)
Organ – an organ like a brain is made up of
different kinds of tissues that work together
(example nervous tissue)
Organ-System – a group of organs that work
together to perform a major function.
Section 2 – Looking inside cells
Organelle – carry out specific functions within
the cell
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Cell wall – a rigid layer of nonliving material that
surrounds the cells of plants and some other
organisms.
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A cell wall helps to protect and support
the cell.
Cytoskeleton – a protein or ‘framework’ inside
the cell that gives the cells their shape.
Cell membrane – barrier after cell wall, forms
outside boundary that separates the cell from
its environment.
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The cell membrane controls what
substances come into and out of a cell.
Nucleus – acts as the control center of the cell
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The nucleus is the cell’s control center,
firecting allof the cell’s activities.
Cytoplasm – region between the cell membrane
and the nucleus.
-
In the cytoplasm are many organelles,
including mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi bodies,
chloroplasts, vacuoles, and lysosomes.
Each of these organelles has specific
functions in the cell.
Mitochondria – rod-shaped structures known as
the powerhouse they convert energy in food
molecules to energy the cell can use to carry
out its functions.
Endoplasmic reticulum – maze of passageways
that help form proteins and other materials.
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Ribosome – function as factories to produce
proteins.
Golgi body – organelles that transport
materials, they receive proteins and other newly
formed materials from the endoplasmic
reticulum, package and distribute materials to
other parts of the cell and release materials
outside the cell.
Chloroplast – organisms with green organelles
that capture energy from sunlight and use it to
produce food.
-
Chloroplasts make leaves green.
Vacuole – large water filled sac in the
cytoplasm, storage areas of the cells.
Lysosome – small round structures containing
chemicals that break down certain materials in
the cell like old cell parts and release the
substances so they can be used again.
Section 3 – Chemical Compounds in cells
Element – any substance that cannot be broken
down into simpler substances.
Compounds – two or more elements combine
chemically they form a compound.
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Most chemical reactions within cells
could not take place without water.
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Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids are important groups of
organic compounds in living things.
Carbohydrate – energy rich organic compound
made of the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.
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Sugars and starches are examples of
carbohydrates.
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In addition to providing energy for the
cell, carbohydrates are important
components of some cell parts.
Lipid – energy righ organic compounds made of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Contain more
energy than carbohydrates.
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In addition to their function as an energy
source, lipids also make up most of the
cell membrane.
Protein – large organic molecules made of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and in
some cases sulfur.
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Food examples; meat, eggs, fish, nuts
and beans
Amino acid – protein molecules are made up of
smaller molecules called amino acids.
Enzyme – type of protein that speeds up a
chemical reaction in a living thing.
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Proteins known as enzymes perform
important functions in the chemical
reactions that take place in cells.
Nucleic acid – very long organic molecules
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made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen
and phosphorus.
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Nucleic acids contain the instructions
that cells need to carry out all the
functions of life.
DNA – nucleic acid – genetic material that
carries information about an organixsm and is
passed from parent to offspring.
RNA – nucleic acid – plays important role in the
production of proteins.
Chapter 4 – Cell processes and Energy
Section 1 – Photosynthesis
Autotroph; Greek word – auto, meaning – self
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An organism that makes food for itself
Heterotrophy; Greek word – hetero, meaning
other, different
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An organism that depends on other
organisms for food
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Cytokinesis; Greek – kinesis, meaning – motion
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During cell division, the process in which
a cell’s cytoplasm divides and organelles
move into the two new cells that form
Trophe – Greek meaning food.
Photosynthesis – Greek word photo meaning
light and synthesis means putting together.
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Nearly all living things obtain energy
either directly or indirectly from the
energy of sunlight captured during
photosynthesis.
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During photosynthesis, plants and some
other organisms use energy from the sun
to convert carbon dioxide and water into
oxygen and sugars.
Autotroph – an organism that makes its own
food
Heterotrophy – an organism that cannot make
its own food, including animals such as the
zebra and the lion.
Pigment – colored chemical compounds that
absorb light.
Chlorophyll – main photosynthetic pigment in
chloroplasts.
Stomata – carbon dioxide enters the plant
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through small openings on the undersides of
the leaves called stomata. Once in the leaves
the water and carbon dioxide move into the
chloroplasts.
Section 2 – Respiration
Respiration – the process by which cells obtain
energy from glucose.
-
During respiration, cells break down
simple food molecules such as sugar
and release the energy they contain.
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Cells store energy to be used at a later
time when needed.
-
1st stage takes place in the cytoplasm.
Molecules of glucose are broken down
into smaller molecules. A small amount
of energy is released.
-
2nd stage takes place in the
mitochondria, small molecules are
broken down into even smaller
molecules. Chemical reactions require
oxygen and release a great deal of
energy.
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* Two products of respiration are; carbon
dioxide and water. Respiration Equation:
-
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O+ Energy
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Sugar + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide +
Water + Energy
Fermentation – organisms obtain their energy
through fermentation. Energy releasing process
that does not require oxygen.
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Fermentation provides energy for cells
without using oxygen.
Alcoholic Fermentation -
Products of alcoholic fermentation are
important to bakers and brewers. The
carbon dioxide produced by yeast
creates air pockets in bread dough
causing it to rise. Carbon dioxide is also
the source of bubbles in alcoholic drinks
such as beer and sparkling wine.
Lactic Acid Fermentation – when muscles cells
use up oxygen faster than your body can
replace it your cells lack oxygen and
fermentation occurs. The fermentation supplies
your cells with energy.
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One product of this type of fermentation
is lactic acid.
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When lactic acid builds up you feel
painful sensations in your muscles, weak
and sore.
Section 3 – Cell division
Cell cycle – the regulare sequence of growth
and division that cells undergo.
Interphase – first stage of the cell cycle the
period before cell division.
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During Interphase the cell grows makes
a copy of its DNA and prepares to divide
into two cells.
Replication – cell makes an exact copy of the
DNA in its nucleus in a process called
replication.
Mitosis – second stage of the cell cycle when
the cells nucleus divides into two new nuclei.
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During mitosis one copy of the DNA is
distributed into each of the two daughter
cells.
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Divided into four parts:
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1) pro-phase
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2) metaphase
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3) anaphase
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4) telophase
Chromosome – During prophase threadlike
chromoatin in the nucleus condenses to form
double-rod structures called chromosomes.
Each chromosome has two rods because the
cells DNA has replicated, each rod in a
chromosome is an exact copy of the other.
Cytokinesis – final stage of the cell cycle,
completes the process of cell division.
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During Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm
divides, organelles are distributed into
each of the two new cells.
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Animals; the cell membrane squeezes
together around the middle of the cell.
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Plants; the rigid cell wall cannot squeeze
together in the same way that a cell
membrane can. Instead a structure
called cell plate forms across the middle
of the cell.
Section 4 – Cell Differentiation
Differentiation – the process by which cells
change in structure and become capable of
carrying out specialized functions.
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As cells differentiate, they become
different from one another.
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Cells form groups made of other similarly
specialized cells.
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Cell groups form tissues and organs
Stem cell – humans, not plants, that can
differentiate throughout life. Stem cells exist all
around the body.
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Respond to specific needs in the body by
becoming specialized.
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- example; new blood cells to replace
older cells.
Chapter 5 Genetics: The Science of
Section 1 – Mendel’s work
Heredity
Importance; suffix – ance/ence, meaning state
of, quality of
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State of being important
Dependent; suffix – ant/ent, meaning – inclined
to, likely to
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Likely to rely on something or someone
else
Simplicity; suffix – ity, meaning – state of,
quality of
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State of being simple or easy
Production; suffix – tion, meaning – process of
state of
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Process of making
Gergor Mendel – European monastery monk
and gardener. He studied Pea Plants.
Heredity – the passing of physical
characteristics from parents to offspring.
Trait – each different form of a characteristic
such as stem height or seed color is called a
trait.
Genetics – the study of heredity.
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Mendel experimented with thousands of
pea plants to understand the process of
heredity, his discoveries form the
foundation of genetics.
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In all of Mendel’s crosses trails of F1
offspring to F2 offspring; only one form of
the trai appeared in the F1 generation.
However, in the F2 generation, the ‘lost’
form of the trait always reappeared in
about one fourth of the plants.
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Fertilization – when the female pistil sex cells or
eggs, join to male stamens produced pollen or
male sperm and a new organism begins to
form.
Purebred – an organism is the offspring of
many generations that have the same trait.
Gene – term used by scientists today for the
factors that control traits.
Alleles – are the different forms of a gene.
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An organism’s traits are determined by
the alleles it inherits from its parents.
Some alleles are dominant, while other
alleles are recessive.
Dominant allele – one whose trait always shows
up in the organism when the allele is present.
Recessive allele – hidden trait whenever the
dominant allele is present.
Hybrid – an organism has two different alleles
for a trait.
Section 2 – Probability and Heredity
Probability - predict the results of a particular
event.
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The number that describes how likely it
is that a certain event will occur.
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Punnett Square – chart that shows how the
laws of probability apply to genetics.
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Shows all the possible combinations of
alleles that can result from a genetic
cross.
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Using the square- in a genetic cross, the
allele that each parent will pass on to its
offspring is based on probability.
Phenotype – an organisms phenotype is its
physical appearance, or visible traits.
Genotype - an organism’s genothype is its
genetic makeup or allele combinations.
Homozygous – an organism that has two
identical alleles for a trait.
Heterozygous – an organism that has two
different alleles for a trait
Codominance – an inheritance pattern
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In Codominance, the alleles are neither
dominant nor recessive. As a result, both
alleles are expressed in the offspring.
Section 3 – The Cell and Inheritance
Sexual reproduction – genetic material from two
parents combines to produce a new organism,
which differs from both parents.
Diploid – cell contain two sets of chromosomes,
one set from each parent.
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According to the chromosome theory of
inheritance, genes are carried from
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parents to their offspring on
chromosomes.
Meiosis – the process by which the number of
chromosomes is reduced by half to form sex
cells – sperm and eggs.
-
During meiosis, the chromosome pairs
separate and are distributed to two
different cells. The resulting sex cells
have only half as many chromosomes as
the other cells in the organism.
Section 4 – Genes, DNA, and Proteins
Order of bases – the order of the nitrogen
bases along a gene forms a genetic code that
specifies what type of protein will be produced.
Production of proteins – During protein
synthesis, the cell uses information from a gene
on a chromosome to produce a specific protein.
Messenger RNA – protein synthesis;
messenger RNA copies the coded message
from the DNA in the nucleus and carries the
message to the ribosome in the cytoplasm.
Transfer RNA – carries amino acids to the
ribosome and adds them to the growing protein.
Mutation – any change in a gene or
chromosome.
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Mutations can cause a cell to produce an
incorrect protein during protein
synthesis.
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As a result the organism’s trait or
phenotype may be different from what it
normally would have been.
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Type 1) single base may be substituted
for another or one or more bases may be
removed from a section of DNA.
-
Type 2) when chromosomes don’t
separate correctly during meiosis. A cell
can end up with too many or too few
chromosomes or an extra segment of
chromosomes.
Chapter 6 – Modern Genetics
Section 1 – Human Inheritance
Some human traits are controlled by single
genes with two alleles and others by single
genes with multiple alleles. Still other traits are
controlled by many genes that act together.
Multiple alleles – three or more forms of a gene
that code for a single trait.
Sex chromosomes- one of the 23 pairs of
chromosomes in each body cell.
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The sex chromosomes carry genes that
determine whether a person is male or
female. They also carry gewnes that
determine other traits.
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Sex-linked gene – Genes on the X and Y
chromosomes are called sex-linked genes
because their alleles are passed from parent to
child on a sex chromosome.
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Example: Red-green colorblindness.
Carrier – a person who has one recessive allele
for a trait and one dominant allele.
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Many of an organism’s characteristics
are determined by an interaction
between genes and the environment.
Section 2 – Human Genetic Disorders
Genetic disorder – an abnormal condition that a
person inherits through genes or chromosomes.
-
Some genetic disorders are caused by
changes in the DNA of genes.
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Other disorders are caused by changes
in the overall structure or number of
chromosomes.
Pedigree – a chart used by geneticists to trace
the inheritance of traits in humans, a family tree
that tracks which members of a family have a
particular trait.
Karyotype - a picture of all the chromosomes in
a cell.
Section 3 – Advances in Genetics
Selective breeding, cloning and genetic
engineering are three methods for developing
organisms with desirable traits.
– Process of selecting organisms with desired
traits to be parents of the next generation.
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Inbreeding – involves crossing two individuals
that have similar characteristics.
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Inbred organisms have alleles that are
very similar to those of their parents.
Hybridization – breeders cross two genetically
different individuals the results is to bred to
have the best traits from both parents.
Clone – an organism that has exactly the same
genes as the organism from which it was
produced.
Genetic engineering – genes from one
organism are transferred into the DNA of
another organism.
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Can produce medicines and improve
food crops
Gene therapy – the ability to correct some
genetic disorders in humans. It will involve
inserting copies of a gene directly into a
persons’ cells.
Genome – The Human Genome Project
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Is all the DNA in one cell of an organism.
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Goal of project to identify the DNA
swquence of every gene in the human
genome.
Chapter 16 – The Endocrine System
Section 1 – The Endocrine System
and Reproduction
Differentiate – verb
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To change and become specialized in
the process of embryo development
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Menstruate – verb
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To lose blood and tissue in a monthly
cycle
Ovulate – verb
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To release an egg from an ovary
The endocrine system produces chemicals that
control many of the body’s daily activities.
-
The endocrine system also regulates
long-term changes such as growth and
development.
Endocrine gland – produce and release their
chemical products directly into the bloodstream.
Blood carries those chemicals throughout the
body.
Hormone – chemical product of an endocrine
gland, hormones turn on turn off, speed up or
slow down the activities of different organs and
tissues.
Target cell – specialized cells that recognize the
hormones chemical structure.
-
Hormones travel through the bloods
stream until they find the ‘lock’ or
particular cell type that they fit.
The endocrine glands include the
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hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
adrenal, thymus and pancreas.
-
They also include the ovaries in females
and testes in males.
Pituitary gland – below the hypothalamus, the
size of a pea is the pituitary gland.
-
Communicates with the hypothalamus to
control many body activities.
Negative feedback – type of signal used in the
body providing feedback to turn off the
condition it produces.
-
Through negative feedback when the
amount of a particular hormone in the
blood reaches a certain level the
endocrine system sends signals that
stop the release of that hormone.
Section 2 – The Male and Female
Reproductive Systems
Egg – female sex cell
Sperm – male sex cell
Testis – oval shaped organs of the male
reproductive system in which sperm are
produced.
Testosterone – a hormone that controls the
development of physical characgteristics in
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mature men.
Scrotum – where testes are located in an
external pouch of skin.
Semen – mixture of sperm cells and fluids
Penis – organ where semen leaves the body
Urethra – tube in the penis through which the
semen travels out of the body
Ovary – female reporiductive structures that
produce and store eggs.
Estrogen – endocrine glands that produce
hormones, triggers the development of some
adult female characteristics.
Fallopian tube – oviducts are passageways for
eggs as they travel from the ovary to the uterus.
Usually the egg is fertilized in a fallopian tube.
Uterus – a hollow muscular organ about the
size of a pear.
Vagina – a muscular passageway leading to the
outside of the body, the birth canal.
Menstrual cycle – the monthly cycle when an
egg is produced and released creating the
monthly cycle of changes in a female
reproductive system.
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Follicle – an egg matures within it is own
grouping of cells called a follicle.
Ovulation – the process in which an egg is
released.
Menstruation – Same time egg is prepared to
be released the lining of the uterus begins to
thicken. If the egg is not fertilized then the egg
and extra blood and tissue of the thickened
lining are sloughed off and pass out of the body
through the vagina.
Section 3 – Pregnancy, Development, and
Birth
-
The zygote develops into an embryo and
then into a fetus. Differentiation leads to
specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
Embryo – two-cell stage through 8th week of
development
Differentiation – the process by which cells
change and become specialized.
Fetus – from about the 9th week of pregnancy to
birth
Amniotic sac – one membrane surrounds the
embryo and develops into a fluid filled sac
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Placenta – an organ that develops from fetal
tissue during pregnancy, blood vessels are
located next to the mother’s blood vessels.
Umbilical cord – ropelike structure between the
embryo and the placenta contains veins and
arteries that link the fetus to the mother.
Adolescence – stage of development during
which children mature into adults physically and
mentally.
Puberty – between the ages of 9 and 15 years,
girls and boys enter puberty the period of
development in which the body becomes able
to reproduce.
Chapter 7 - Changes Over Time
Section 1 – Darwin’s Theory
Theory – Noun – Scientific Meaning; a welltested concept that explains a wide range of
observations.
Cast – Noun – Scientific Meaning; a type of
fossil that forms when a mold becomes filled
with minerals
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Species – a group of similar organisms that can
mate with each other and produce fertile
offspring.
Fossil – preserved remains or traces of an
organism that lived in the past.
Adaption – a trait that helps an organism
survive and reproduce in its environment.
Evolution – gradual change in a species over
time.
Scientific theory – a well tested concept that
explains a wide range of observations.
Natural selection – evolution occurs through
natural selection when individuals that are
better adapted to their environment are more
likely to survive and reproduce than other
members of the same species.
Variation- difference between individuals of the
same species is genetic variation.
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Section 2 – Evidence of Evolution
Comparative anatomy – comparison of the
structures of different organisms.
Homologous structures – similar structures that
related species have inherited from a common
ancestor.
Mold – a hallow area I sediment in the shape of
an organism or part of an organism.
Cast – a solid copy of the shape of an
organism.
Petrified fossil – fossil formed whe the remains
of an organism become petrified, fossils in
which minerals replace all or part of an
organism.
Trace fossil – provide evidence of the activities
of ancient organism like footprints.
Paleontologist – scientists who study fossils.
Gradualism – a hypothesis that proposes that
evolution occurs slowly but steadily.
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Punctuated equilibria – hypothesis that
accounts for the gaps in the fossil record.
Section 3 – Evolution of Species
Habitat – the specific environment that provides
the things the organism needs to live, grow and
reproduce.
Extinct – species where no members of that
species are still alive.
Notes:
Endocrine System – produces chemicals that
control many of the bodies daily activities as
well as growth / development.
Negative Feedback – when a particular
hormone gets to a specific level, it stops the
release of that hormone.