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• The passing of traits from parents to offspring – Genes on chromosomes control the traits that show up in organisms Heredity • The father of genetics • First to use mathematics of probability to explain heredity and to trace one trait for several generations Gregor Mendel • Different forms of a trait that a gene may have Alleles • The study of how traits are inherited is genetics • covers up or dominates other allele Dominant allele • the trait seems to disappear unless the organism has TWO copies Recessive allele • receive DIFFERENT genetic information for a trait from each parent Hybrids Punnett Square • the genetic makeup of an organism Genotype – an organism with two alleles for one trait that are the SAME Homozygous – an organism with two alleles for one trait that are the DIFFERENT Heterozygous • the way an organism looks and behaves as a result of its genotype Phenotype Cross Bb and BB Cross Bb and BB B B B b BB Bb BB Bb What Percentage of Offspring are Homozygous recessive? BB Bb Bb bb 25% If B is allele for pink flowers, and b is the allele for white, what is the probability of having offspring that are pink? BB Bb Bb bb 75% B and b show incomplete dominance. If B is allele for red flowers, and b is the allele for white, what is the probability of having offspring that are pink? BB Bb Bb bb 50% B and b show codominance. If B is allele for pink flowers, and b is the allele for white, what is the probability of having offspring that are pink? BB Bb Bb bb 25% • When the offspring of two homozygous parents show an intermediate phenotype – Such as flower color in some plants, coat of some horse breeds Chesnut horse Cremello horse Palomino horse Incomplete dominance • When the offspring of two homozygous parents show an intermediate phenotype – Such as flower color in some plants, coat of some horse breeds Chesnut horse Cremello horse Palomino horse • Occurs when a group of gene pairs act together to produce a trait • The effects of many alleles produce a wide variety of phenotypes – Ex: height, eye and skin color Polygenic Inheritance • Occurs when a group of gene pairs act together to produce a trait • The effects of many alleles produce a wide variety of phenotypes – Ex: height, eye and skin color • plays a role in how genes are expressed – Ex: some people have genes that make them at risk for developing skin cancer, but if they limit their exposure to the sun, they may never get cancer Environmental Impact • Environment plays a role in how genes are expressed – Ex: some people have genes that make them at risk for developing skin cancer, but if they limit their exposure to the sun, they may never get cancer • Genes that are altered or copied incorrectly – Can be harmful, beneficial, or have no effect – Can be caused by x-rays or radioactive substances Bruce Banner was exposed to Gamma Radiation, turning him into the Hulk. Mutations • Genes that are altered or copied incorrectly – Can be harmful, beneficial, or have no effect – Can be caused by x-rays or radioactive substances Bruce Banner was exposed to Gamma Radiation, turning him into the Hulk. • Mistakes in meiosis can result in new organism with more or fewer chromosomes than normal – Usually fatal to unborn fetus, but not always – Ex: Down Syndrome Chromosome Disorders • Mistakes in meiosis can result in new organism with more or fewer chromosomes than normal – Usually fatal to unborn fetus, but not always – Ex: Down Syndrome • These disorders occur when both parents have a recessive allele responsible – Because parents heterozygous, they don’t show symptoms • Ex: cystic fibrosis Recessive Genetic Disorders • Some recessive genes are result of a mutation • These disorders occur when both parents have a recessive allele responsible – Because parents heterozygous, they don’t show symptoms • Ex: cystic fibrosis • Chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism are XX in females and XY in males • Females produce eggs with X chromosome only and males produce sperm with X or Y. Sex Determination • Chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism are XX in females and XY in males • Females produce eggs with X chromosome only and males produce sperm with X or Y. • an allele inherited on a sex chromosome Sex Linked Disorders • Sex-linked gene- an allele inherited on a sex chromosome – Ex: color blindness trait for color blindness recessive on X chromosome. Because men only have one X chromosome, a male with this allele is color blind. • A visual tool for following a trait through generations of a family Pedigree • A visual tool for following a trait through generations of a family • When scientists experiment with biological and chemical methods to change the arrangement of DNA that makes up a gene – Can be done to find new ways to improve crop production and quality, including the development of plants that are resistant to disease Genetic Engineering • When scientists experiment with biological and chemical methods to change the arrangement of DNA that makes up a gene – Can be done to find new ways to improve crop production and quality, including the development of plants that are resistant to disease • made by inserting a useful segment of DNA from one organism into a bacterium – ex: large quantities of human insulin are made by genetically engineered organisms Recombinant DNA • a normal allele is placed in a virus. The virus then delivers the normal allele when it infects target, and the normal allele replaces defective one. – Used to test ways of controlling cystic fibrosis and cancer Gene therapy • In the past, improvements to plants were result of selecting plants with most desirable traits and breeding them Selective Breeding Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) Benefits Risks • • • • Modified plants or animals may have genetic changes that are unexpected and harmful. • Modified organisms may interbreed with natural organisms and out-compete them, leading to extinction of the original organism or to other unpredictable environmental effects. • Plants may be less resistant to some pests and more susceptible to others. • • • • • More nutritious food Tastier food Disease- and drought-resistant plants that require fewer environmental resources (water, fertilizer, etc.) Decreased use of pesticides Increased supply of food with reduced cost and longer shelf life Faster growing plants and animals Food with more desirable traits, such as potatoes that absorb less fat when fried Medicinal foods that could be used as vaccines or other medications